UNIVERSITY  OF 

ILLINOIS  LIBRARY 

AT  URCANA-CHAMPAIGN 

ILL  HIST.  SURVEY 


////. 


Communities 

of  the 

Past  And 
Present 


Published  by  Llano  Colonist 

Newllano,  Louisiana 

192^ 


PRICE,  $1.00 


Copyright,   192U 
B'l  ERSKST  S.  WOnSTFR 


Composition,    printing    and    binding    by 
Llano  Co-operative  Colony 


"     J'' 'p^^' ^^' ^  ^ 


CONTENTS 


EPHRATA     COMMUNITY  1 

THE     HARMONISTS 2 

THE    SEPARATISTS    OF    ZOAR  7 

ROBERT     OWEN     AND     HIS     COMMUNITIES  12 

HOPEDALE     COMMUNITY  17 

FOURIER    AND     HIS     EXPERIMENTS  1& 

Brook   Farm;    North  American   Phalanx,   Northampton   Association 
Wisconsin  Phalanx 

A     COMMUNITY     OF     SWEDES  25 

A    SUCCESSFUL    SMALL     COLONY  28 

THE     ICARIANS 29 

Cheltenham  Community;  First  Iowa  Community;  The  Young  Party 
The  New  Icarian  Community 

THE    WOMEN'S    COMMONWEALTH  39 

TOPOLOBAMPO     COLONY  40 

THE     RUSKIN     COMMONWEALTH  44 

THE     CHRISTIAN     COMMONWEALTH  46 

BROTHERHOOD    CO-OPERATIVE     COMMUNITY  OF  EQUALITY  ....  47 

COSME     COLONY     (S.    A.) 50 

SMALLER    OR    SHORT-LIVED    COLONIES       59 

Fruttlands;    Skaneateles   Commujuity;    The   Bethel- Aurora   Communities; 
Colorado   Co-operative   Cominunity;    Celesta   Second   Adventists; 
Adonai-Shomo ;  St.  Naziaz  Colony;  The  Bruederhcff  Com- 
munities; Brotherhood  of  the  New  Life;  Mme.  Modjeska's 
Colony;  Shalam,  or  the  Children's  Colony;   Lord's   Farm. 

\       THE   NEVADA   COLONY.  •. 70 

V  \      THE     SHAKER     COMMUNITIES 75 

^    THE    AMANA    COMMUNITY  79 

A  BOUNTY    MUTINEERS    (Incorrectly  entitled  Botany  Bay  Mutineers)  ....  90 

THE     PERFECTIONIST     COMMUNITIES    (Oneida)   92 

KORESHAN     UNITY 100 

CHRISTIAN   COMMUNITY   OF   UNIVERSAL    BROTHERHOOD  106 

HOUSE    OF   DAVID 115 

LLANO    CO-OPERATIVE    COLONY  117 

ARMY    OF    INDUSTRY 133 

IvUZiiAS    (kvussia)    - 138 

LESSER   COMMUNITIES   OF   TO-DAY  140 

A  Colony  of  Finns;   Heaven  Everywhere;  United  Co-operative  Industries 

INDIVIDUALISTIC    "COLONIES"         146 

ANALYSIS    OF    COMMUNITY    ENTERPRISES  149 

CONCLUSION 151 

CO-OPERATION   AND   HUMAN    NATURE  156 


XI 


3  b  O .  T 

(^     "2.  ADDENDA 

Since  ihe  printing  of  the  first  s«rctions  of  this  book,  much  additional  mat- 
ter has  come  to  the  writer.  Mr.  John  Duss  of  Old  Economy,  the  last  home 
of  the  Rappites.  sends  in   some   valuable  matter. 

Lincoln  Phifer  sends  the  writer  a  brief  summary  ui  me  .\f\.i(ia  v.  oiony 
at  Fallon.  .\lr.  Phifer  was  associated  with  the  colony  for  a  short  time,  and 
as  a  new'spa|)er  man  and  trained  observer,  his  account  deserves  space  which 
it  was  impossible  to  grant  it  in  this  volume,  as  the  section  devoted  to  the 
account  ol   the  Nevada  Colony  had  already  gone  to  press. 

Mr.  Duss's  letter  is  of  s|)ecial  interest,  for  it  shows  that  the  Harmonitet 
have  not  always  been  truthfully  and  considerately  handled  by  those  who 
have  essayed  to  report  them.  For  fear  that  the  author  of  this  little  volume 
may  apjiear  in  a  like  light,  we  hasten  to  offer  such  apologies  as  may  be  re- 
quired for  the  account  herein  given,  and  only  regret  that  the  material  sent  by 
Mr.  Duss  was  not  available  before  the  first  section,  containing  the  account 
of  the  Harmonites.  had  gone  to  press.  However,  we  reprint  a  portion  of 
his  letter,  and  hope  in  the  next  edition  to  make  amends  for  any  transgres- 
sions that  may  appear  here.     Mr.  Duss  writes,  on  July  8.   1924: 

"Ernest  S.  Wooster:  Am  just  back  from  the  hospital,  where  I  was 
taken  *  ^  *'■  I  am  out  of  patience  with  historians  in  general  as  to  what  they 
write  in  regard  to  the  Harmony  Society.  Some  of  Hinds'  matter  is  good,  but 
as  I  recollect  it  is  not  what  it  should  be  toward  the  end.  Have  not  looked 
at  what  he  has  to  say  for  20  years,  so  my  mind  is  not  quite  clear  as  to  the 
subject  *  ^''  ^'  ^ou  will  note  that  we  had  a  Centennial  (of  the  Harmony 
Society)  here  last  month.  I  gave  every  month  of  the  six  months  prior  to 
June  6  to  the  preparation  for  it,  and  it  was  probably  due  to  this  over-exertion 
that  I  was  stricken  down.  However.  I  have  the  satisfaction  that  all  sides 
proclaim  the  celebration  as  the  most  wonderful  thing  of  the  sort  that  ever 
was  seen  anywhere." 


ERROR— Page  90.    The  title  "Bo  any  Bay  Mutineers  '  should  be  "Boun- 
ty Mutineers." 


Communities 
of  the  Past 


THE  EJ^HRATA  COMMIMTY    T  . 

1728—1900 

Importai^J  "cKlcfly  because  it  shows  the  longevity  posMble  to  co- 
operative Connnuuities.  the  Kphrata  Community  deierves  first  men- 
tion, as  btMiig  one  of  the  earhe.«l  lormcd  and  also  one  which  endured 
through   srvcial    generations.  ^ 

Conrad  Beissel  (also  kno%\n  as  Beisel  and  Peysel)  after  Iniii;^ 
as  a  recluse  for  several  years,  was  convinced  that  the  seventh  day 
of  the  Mctrck  should  be  observed  as  a  day  of  worship.  In  172ft  ftc 
published  a  work  on  this  subjeicJ  which  gave  him  a  small  following, 
lliree  ineji  and  two  women  sh*«.'d  his  wilderness  seclusion  with  him. 
They  ieriaed  the  oudeus  lor  a  community  which  at  one  time  had  3(X) 
innabit&nls.  and  owned  much  pxt>|)erty,  including  some  enormous  dwell- 
ings. A  pa}>er  mill,  iiour  mill,  oil  mill,  fulling  mill,  bakery,  printery, 
school  house,  and  other  small  buildings,  with  much  land,  made  up  the 
propcrry  of  this  grou3x  Governor  Penn,  who  frequently  visitdd  the 
Beissel  Colony,  offered  ibem  a  tract  of  5000  acres,  but  the  offer  was 
declined  on  the  grouads  thai  il  might  be  injurious  to  the  spiritual  life- 
of  ihr  community  to  accumulale  much  property.  ^ 

All  the  members  stood  on  perfect  equality.  They  had  no  wrrtten 
agreement,  but  followed  ihr  New  Testament.  .All  prof)erty  was  held 
in  common,  but  no  member  was  obliged  to  surrender  any  of  his  own 
indivjdbal  pxjssessions.  Ihe  source  of  income  was  farming  and  man- 
ufacturing. As  late  as  1900  ibis  community  was  still  in  existence  r 
but  il  was  small   in   membership  and  no  longer   vigorous. 

Ephrata,  as  it  became  known,  was  a  celibate  community,  though, 
no  voMTs  on  celibacy  were  takea,  and  marriage  was  allowed.  Mr. 
Hands  comments  on  Ephrata  as  follows: 

"UTiile  Ephrata  may  excite  an  interest  because  ot  its  common 
proF>erty,  common  labor,  equality  of  conditions  for  all  its  members, 
their  sincerity,  simplicity,  and  godliness,  and  its  unparalled  longevity, 
having  existed  for  173  years,  there  is  in  its  life,  history,  and  achieve- 
ments hllle  worthy  of  the  name  of  "Community." 

TTie  material  success  was  undoubtedly  great,  but  there  was  a 
sacrifice  of  intellectual  attainments,  social  life,  and  all  that  mosi 
people  consider  essential  to  happiness.  TTie  Ephrata  Colony's  1 75 
years  show  the  length  of  life  |X)ssible  to  this  sort  of  society. 

I 


2 

THE    HARMONISTS 

1804—1900 

Another  colony  which  endured  for  more  than  a  century,  though^ 
It  became  less  vigorous  and  failed  to  hold  its  young  people  because 
of  the  peculiarities  of  its  beliefs,  were  the  Harmonists,  also  known  as 
Rappites.  They  demonstrated  the  material  possibilities  of  Commun- 
ity living  in  a  very  convincing  manner;  and,  while  their  social  life 
may  not  have  been  all  that  many  people  would  like,  especially  in  its 
later  history,  that  does  not  destroy  the  value  of  the  evidence,  and' 
merely  shows  that  institutions  of  this  kind,  like  all  others,  must  keep 
pace  with  the  times  and  not  become  set  in  ruts-  A  certain  careless- 
ness in  the  business  end  of  the  enterprise  indicates  a  loss  of  vigor; 
their  celibacy,  of  course,  doomed  them  to  virtual  extinction,  as  it: 
has  other  colonies  which  have  attained  material  and  spiritual  suc-^ 
cess. 

George  Rapp,  born  in  1757  iij  Wurtemberg,  came  to  America  in: 
1803  and  with  associates,  including  his  son  John,  selected  5000  acres- 
in  Butler  County,  Pennsylvania.  During  the  following  year  his  dis- 
ciples followed  in  three  ships.  All  property  was  placed  in  a  common 
fund  and  all  agreed  to  labor  for  the  good  of  the  community,  submit 
to  its  laws,  and  in  case  of  withdrawal  never  to  demand  remuneration 
for  their  own  labor  or  that  of  their  children. 

The  years  following  their  community  organization  were  years  of 
severe  toil,  hardship,  and  trial.  The  land  was  entirely  unimprovecT. 
Nearly  a  shipload  of  their  friends  were  induced  to  locate  elsewhere. 
Others  would  not  enter  with  the  Colony  after  coming.  Some  of  the- 
most  wealthy  withdrew,  taking  their  property.  Many  had  complaints- 
to  make.  Credit  was  injured  by  these  things  and  the  report  that 
the  society  was  about  to  break  up.  But  the  loyal  ones  pledged  them- 
selves to  live  on  roots  if  necessary,  and  convinced  themselves  that 
there  could  be  no  such  thing  as  failure.  A  visitor  wrote  of  them  five- 
years  later: 

"We  were  struck  with  surprise  and  admiration  at  the  astonish- 
ing progress  in  improvements  and  the  establishment  of  manufactories 
^  ^  ^  They  have  done  more  essential  good  for  their  country  in  five 
years  than  the  same  number  of  families  scattered  about  the  coun- 
try have  done  iu  fifty.  And  this  arises  from  their  unity  and  brotherly 
love,  added  to  their  uniform  and  persevering  industry.  They  know 
no  mercenary  views,  no  self-interest,  except  that  which  adds  to  the 
interest  and  happiness  of  the  whole  community.  All  are  equally  in- 
dustrious, for  an  idler  has  no  companion.  If  any  should  fall  into  bad 
practices  of  idleness  or  intoxication,  he  is  kindly  admonished  by  the- 
head  of  the  Family,  backed  by  the  countenance  and  wishes  of  all  the 


3 

rest;  but  if  he  is  found  incorrigible,  he  is  excluded  from  ihe  sadcty; 
so  there  is  no  opening  for  the  practice  of  vice  and  immorality  *  *  *  *' 
Another  visitor  wrote:  "Sometimes  nearly  the  whole  force  of  the 
Society,  male  and  female,  is  directed  to  one  object,  such  as  pulling 
flax,  reaping,  hoeing  corn.  etc..  so  that  the  labor  of  a  hundred-acre 
field  is  accomplished  in  a  day  or  two.  *  *  *  " 

While  thus  prospering  in  this  first  home  of  their  choice,  the  Har- 
monites  resolved  on  removal,  because  of  the  unsuitablencss  of  the  soil 
and  climate  to  their  favorite  employment — growing  of  grapes;  for  they 
were  12  miles  from  navigation,  and  because  their  acreage  was  inade- 
quate to  their  number.  In  1814  they  sold  nearly  6,000  acres  of 
land,  their  factories,  mills,  shops,  and  village  property  of  all  kincls  for 
the  low  price  of  $100,000  and  with  it  purchased  30,000  acres,  mostly 
of  unimproved  government  land,  in  the  Wabash  Valley  in  Indiana. 
They  secured  rich  bottoms  and  fertile  uplands  suitable  for  meadow 
and  grain  fields,  pasture,  and  vineyard-  They  had  timber  and  quarries 
and  water  pKJwer.  They  built  a  new  town  which  they  called  Harmony, 
and  all  op>erations  were  conducted  on  a  larger  scale  than  before. 
Their  commerce  extended  to  New  Orleans  and  their  manufactures  in- 
cluded large  quantities  of  wollen  and  cotton  goods;  they  had  branch 
stores  in  different  places,  their  number  increased,  and  they  had  1000 
f>ersons  in  their  community.  More  than  150  houses  were  in  their 
village,  half  of  logs,  the  rest  of  brick  or  frame.  Three  thousand 
acres  were  brought  under  cultivation,  and  they  had  many  vineyards. 
But  in  this  new  home  many  of  their  number  were  afflicted  with  ma- 
laria; collisions  occurred  with  their  unfriendly  and  ignorant  neighbors; 
some  longed  to  return  to  Pennsylvania;  and  at  the  end  of  ten  years 
the  resolution  was  taken  to  do  so  if  they  could  sell  their  Indiana  pos- 
sessions, which  they  succeeded  in  doing,  though  at  a  great  sacrifice, 
to  Robert  Owen. 

They  began,  in  1825.  the  building  of  their  third  colony  in  Beaver 
County.  Pennsylvania,  calling  this  town  Economy.  It  was  located  on 
the  east  side  of  the  Ohio  river,  about  20  miles  from  Pittsburg.  Here 
again  they  built  shops  and  mills,  planted  trees  and  vines,  cleared  land 
and  started  industries. 

The  Duke  of  Saxe-Weimar  described  the  community  in  glowing 
terms: 

"It  had  a  thousand  inhabitants.  Every  house  was  occupied,  every 
factory  fully  manned.  There  was  a  fine  museum;  costly  paintings  *  * 
ornamented  the  house  built  for  the  founder,  and  evidences  of  prosper- 
ity everywhere  gladdened  the  eye.  Sixty  or  seventy  girls  collected 
in  one  factory  room  and  with  their  venerated  leader  seated  in  their 
midst  sang  their  spiritual  and  other  songs.    With  real  emotion  did  I 


4 

witness   this   interesting   scene.     Their   factories   and  workshops  werc^ 

warmed  in  winter  by  means  of  pipes  connected  with  the  steam-en- 
gine and  all  of  the  workmen  had  healthy  complexions  and  moved  me 
deeply  by  the  warm-hearted  friendliness  with  which  they  saluted  the 
elder  Rapp.  I  was  also  much  gratified  to  see  vessels  containing  fresh, 
sweet-scented  flowers  on  all  the  machines.  The  neatness  which  uni- 
versally reigned  was  in  every  respect  worthy  of  praise.  Huge  three 
and  four-story  structures,  then  or  soon  thereafter  used  as  woolen, 
cotton,  and  silk  mills,  or  for  other  purposes,  were  built." 

But  five  years  later,  in  1831,  the  great  secession  occurred,  led  by 
a  counterfeit  Count  de  Leon,  taking  250  members  and  $105,000  in 
money.  This  bogus  count  came  with  a  flattering  letter  and  words 
of  praise,  announcing  himself  as  "the  Ambassador  and  Annointed  of 
God,  of  the  stem  of  Judah,  of  the  root  of  David,"  and  won  the  con- 
fidence of  Rapp  and  others-  The  simple-minded  and  very  religious 
Harmonists  were  ready  for  such  a  personage,  and  the  "count"  was 
received  with  great  ceremony  and  rejoicing.  Leon  favored  better 
clothing,  better  food,  more  personal  comforts,  less  work,  and  all  of  the 
privilege  of  marriage.  He  caused  a  schism  in  the  Colony,  and  only 
the  kind-heartedness  of  the  Rappites  prevented  the  malcontents  from 
being  sent  out.  All  of  the  dissenters  joined  with  Leon  and  a  vote 
was  taken.  Five  hundred  stood  with  Rapp,  250  went  with  Leon, 
who  took  $105,000  with  them  as  the  result  of  a  compromise.  Leon 
and  his  followers  purchased  800  acres  of  land  ten  miles  away  and 
started  a  new  community,  which  exhausted  its  funds  within  a  year. 
The  count  then  organized  a  mob  of  eighty  persons  who  entered  Econ- 
omy for  the  avowed  purpose  of  forcing  additional  payment  from  the 
Rappites;  but  neighbors  rallied  to  the  defense  of  the  latter,  and  the 
invaders  were  driven  off.  The  "count"  had  as  one  of  his  projects  a 
scheme  to  extract  gold  from  the  rocks  in  his  special  laboratory.  When 
he  failed  to  do  this,  his  followers  rebelled  and  drove  him  out.  He 
went  into  Louisiana  and  died  a  year  later.  Though  this  was  all 
a  severe  strain  on  the  Harmonites,  it  purged  them  of  the  malcon- 
tents  and  gave   them   greater  peace   and   prosperity   than    ever. 

In  summing  up  the  reasons  why  the  Harmonists  failed  to  continue 
this  prosperity,  several  reasons  are  given  by  Mr.  Hinds:  Celibacy  was 
adopted,  and  few  young  people  joined.  The  tremendous  personality 
of  the  elder  Rapp,  and  to  a  lesser  degree  his  adopted  son,  had  furnished 
the  initial  energy.  But  with  their  removal  by  death,  there  was  no 
strong  central  personality.  With  celibacy  operating  to  prevent  growth 
from  within  and  to  deter  members  from  joining,  the  end  was  almost 
inevitable.     It  was  not  a  self-perpetuating  society. 

The  Rappites  destroyed,  voluntarily,  all  individual  records  of 
property  ownership,  so  that  it  all  went  to  the  colony.     After  a  lawsuit 


s 

by  a  dissatisfied  member,  the  agreement  was  made  that  all  property 
ibrought  in  by  new  members  must  belong  to  the  community  as  a  whole. 
The  Rappites  gave  up  the  use  ol  tobacco. 

Mr.  Hinds  says:  "Probably  every  community  that  has  lived  long 
enough  to  accumulate  any  considerable  pro|>erty  has  had  serious 
troubles  with  persons  claiming  that  they  were  rightfully  part  owners 
thereof-  Those  who  left  a  community  for  its  good  or  were  ex|>elled 
from  it  because  they  sought  to  change  or  destroy  its  very  life,  are  the 
ones  to  be  first  in  at  the  death,  in  June.  1894,  certain  persons  claim- 
ing to  be  heirs  filed  a  bill  in  the  U.  S.  Circuit  Court  at  Pittsburg. 
Scandalous  charges  were  made  agamst  various  members  of  the  society, 
and  it  was  asked  that  the  society  be  dissolved.  However,  as  in  cases 
of  other  communities,  the  rights  of  the  colony  were  upheld  against 
these  sinister  birds  of  prey." 

In  an  earlier  suit.  1821.  action  was  brought  against  the  Society 
by  one  Eugene  Miller,  who  had  been  a  member,  to  recover  wages  for 
labor  and  services  rendered.  The  suit  was  rightfully  decided  against 
the  complainant  on  the  ground  that  in  signing  the  articles  of  association 
he  had  formally  renounced  all  claim  for  wages.  The  court  held  that 
those  who  secede  lose  all  property  rights  separate  from  the  colony. 

In  a  case  in  1849,  brought  eventually  before  ihe  Supreme  Court 
of  the  United  States,  lasting  seven  years  in  all,  and  enlisting  such  emin- 
ent counsel  for  the  plaintiff  as  Edwin  M.  Stanton,  later  Secretary  of 
War  for  Abraham  Lincoln,  a  verdict  was  obtained  for  the  colony, 
setting  a  precedent  which  will  be  difficult  to  overturn.  This  is  known 
as  the  Nachtrieb  case  and  seems  to  set  at  rest  forever  in  this  country 
the  rights  of  individuals  in  such  a  community. 

Although  the  Harmonites  dwindled  in  numbers,  they  did  some 
splendid  things.  Half  a  century  after  leaving  the  Indiana  home,  they 
spent  several  thousand  dollars  for  the  benefit  of  the  citizens  of  New 
Harmony,  purchasing  the  enormous  cruciform  structure  used  as  a  hall 
and  assembly  room  when  their  community  was  located  there.  Part 
was  demolished,  but  a  portion  was  allowed  to  stand  as  an  Institute,  be- 
ing 45  feet  by   125  feet. 

The  Harmonites  were  liberal  with  their  wealth  when  prosperous. 
None  were  turned  from  their  doors  hungry.  They  aided  benevolent 
and  educational  enterprises.  They  contributed  to  the  support  of  fam- 
ilies of  absent  soldiers  during  the  Civil  War. 

Once  when  they  were  in  dire  distress  a  merchant  extended  them 
credit,  and  this  credit  enabled  them  to  get  their  enterprise  on  its  feet. 
Many  years  later  conditions  were  reversed,  and  this  merchant  was  about 
to  go  down  before  a  financial  storm.  Father  Rapp  filled  two  bags 
•*\'ith  gold  coin,  rode  to  the  merchant's  home,  delivered  it  to  him,  and 


6 

told  him  as  much  more  was  ready  for  him  if  it  was  needed- 

In  its  later  days  the  colony  became  indebted  through  careless 
accounting  and  was  on  the  verge  of  bankruptcy.  Courageously  fac- 
ing facts,  accountants  were  employed,  and  a  financial  statement  ren- 
dered. By  the  sale  of  securities  and  by  relentless  work,  the  debts  were 
finally  paid.  The  necessity  of  careful  accounting  was  made  clear,  for 
there  was  no  dishonesty,  only  a  confusion  of  accounts  that  hid  facts 
from  even  those  handling  the  books. 

The  Harmonites  were  not  a  distinct  religious  sect.  They  acknowl- 
edged no  creed  except  the  Bible.  They  regarded  community  goods  as 
an  essential  part  of  Christianity.  They  believed  in  the  final  restora- 
tion of  the  earth  to  a  condition  of  paradise.  They  believed  in  future 
rewards  and  punishments. 

The  observation  seems  justified  in  this  colony,  as  in  others  that 
will  be  studied,  that  the  strong,  dominating  personality  necessary  to 
fix  the  policies  and  traditions  which  are  to  guide  the  colony  may  in 
time  become  a  weakness;  for  the  colonists  lean  on  such  a  masterful 
leader  and  do  not  develop  the  strength  and  ability  which  must  be 
present  after  his  death;  they  look  forward  to  another  such  leader  and 
are  likely  to  be  unwise  in  the  choice,  with  the  result  that  with  every- 
thing left  to  the  judgment  of  this  misplaced  leader,  they  may  be  landed 
in  desperate  straits  before  they  know  it.  There  is  one  perfect  example 
of  this  in  the  Swedish  Community,  founded  in  1846,  which  will  be 
considered  in  a  subsequent  chapter. 


THE   SEPARATISTS    OE    ZOAR 

1819—1898 
The  follov\er»  of  Joseph  Baumelcr.  founder  of  Zoar  community,  were 
known  as  Separatists,  for  they  renounced  allegiance  to  the  church  and  refused 
to  aid  the  slate  in  military  service.  They  were  persecuted  in  Kuro|>c  and 
driven  from  place  to  place.  One  of  the  leaders  was  taken  before  Najwleon. 
but  he  told  the  latter  that  he  "would  have  to  account  on  judgment  day  for 
the   multitude  of   souls  he  was   hurrying   to  eternily   by    reason   of   his   bloody 

The  followers  of  Baumeler.  or  Bimeler.  as  he  was  later  known,  came 
to  this  country  in  1817  and  located  in  Tuscarawas  County.  Ohio.  They 
worked  all  winter  building  houses,  and  in  the  s|)ring  of  1818  the  colony  was 
established  at  Zoar.  Some  of  the  colonists  were  so  |x>or  they  could  not 
live  in  the  colony  at  fust,  but  had  to  hire  out  as  laborers.  Some  remained 
out  to  learn  trades  that  they  might  be  more  useful  to  the  colony  when  they 
became   resident   members. 

Common  ownership  of  property  was  a  part  of  the  original  program,  but 
the  necessity  of  holding  together  forced  them  to  it,  and  they  never  depart- 
ed from  this  rule.  This  was  adopted  in  1819.  and  prosperity  attended 
ihera  from  that  time  on.  until  they  eventually  owned  thousands  of  acres  of 
rich  land,  a  sawmill,  a  woolen  factory,  a  store,  a  hotel,  and  other  properties 
worth  not  less  than  three  quarters  of  a  million  dollars  in  1870.  the  peak  of 
their  prosperity.  They  owned  sheep,  daiiy  cows,  a  cattle  barn  210  feel 
long  and  50  feet  wide  with  104  stalls  which  cost  $7,000  and  was  modern 
in   every   respect    for   the   time   when   it   was  built. 

Elach  family  had  a  small  garden,  and  in  addition  there  were  community 
gardens,  especially  a   flower  garden. 

During  the  Civil  War  many  thousands  of  dollars  were  spent  to  hire  substi- 
tutes that  the  young  men  of  the  colony  might  remain  at  home:  but  14  were 
swept  away  nevertheless. 

Tlie  Zoar  colony  reached  its  greatest  |X)pulation  in  1832  when  a  large 
number  of  emigrants  came  from  Germany,  reaching  about  SCO  persons.  These 
were  divided  into  classes.  The  first  class  included  probationary  members, 
the  children,  and  all  who  had  not  sign  id  the  covenant.  Children  reaching 
majority  could  be  received  into  the  second  class  after  a  year's  delay  by  mak- 
ing application.  Only  members  of  the  second  class  could  vote  or  hold  office, 
but  in  other  respects  they  had  equal  privileges.  .Many  did  not  care  to  grad- 
ute  into  the  second  class,  so  that  a  minority  actually  held  the  power.  But 
a  greater  number  refused  to  go  into  the  second  class  because  their  private 
property  then  became  communal  properly  never  to  be  withdrawn.  Members 
of  the  first  class  could  withdraw  whatever  property  they  brought  in;  but 
members  of  the  second  class  who  wished  to  leave  would  be  granted  a  gift, 
not  as  a  right,  but  as  a  r:iark  of  eslecn. 


8 

Women  enjoyed  the  same  right  as  men  in  all  respects.     They  pursued 

such    occupalions    as    garden    work,    field   work    when    strong    enough,    and 
knitting. 

Besides  the  working  members  of  the  colony,  the  Zoarites  hired  outside 
wage  workers.  The  practice  was  begun  in  1834  when  cholera  had  swept 
away  one  third  of  the  population  and  was  not  discontinued.  It  was  regarded 
Iby  some  as  being  bad  for  the  colony,  however.  The  hours  of  labor  were 
from  sunrdse  to  sunset.  Groceries  and  provisions  were  distributed  equally 
to  each  family  according  to  the  number  of  persons  in  the  family.  Beef  was 
the  only  meat  used.  Each  family  raised  poultry,  exchanging  surplus  eggs 
at  the  store,  or  turning  them  in  to  be  used  by  those  who  had  an  insufficient 
supply.  The  rationing  of  food  was  not  strictly  according  to  needs,  consid- 
erable latitude  being  allowed. 

The  Zoar  colony  was  ruled  by  three  trustees,  appointing  such  subordin- 
ates as  they  considered  necessary;  but  these  trustees  were  responsible  to  a 
Standing  Committee  of  Five,  to  which  reports  were  made  and  who  were 
consulted  on  many  matters.  The  Standing  Committee  was  thus  the  central 
power,  and  to  it  members  could  appeal  from  the  decisions  of  the  trustees. 

The  Constitution  provided  that  all  officers  should  be  voted  for  by  all 
«f  the  full  members;  that  one  trustee  and  one  member  of  the  Standing  Com- 
Tnittee  should  be  elected  annually;  that  a  cashier  should  be  chosen  every 
four  years;  and  that  the  time  of  election  should  be  published  20  days  be- 
fore taking  place. 

A  probation  period  of  one  year  was  required  of  new  members,  and 
during  this  time  they  were  paid  wages.  Then  if  admitted  they  became  mem- 
bers of  the  first  class.  The  following  year  they  were  permitted  to  join  the 
second  class  if  they  felt  disposed  to  do  so. 

Longevity  was  also  noted  among  the  Zoarites.  In  1876  when  Mr.  Hinds 
-visited  the  Zoar  community,  he  found  a  man,  who  had  formerly  lived  with  the 
Shakers,  who  was  then  93,  a  woman  93,  another  woman  87,  and  a  number 
between  75  and  80.  The  foreman  of  one  of  the  factories  was  past  86,  and  a 
member  had  then  recently  died  at  the  age  of  90. 

There  was  no  particular  religious  belief,  tho  all  of  the  members  were 
devoutly  religious.  Contrary  to  some  other  colonies,  the  Zoarites  began  as 
celibates,  but  changed  to  marriage  so  that  they  might  have  children  to  carry 
on  the  work.  It  was  a  rule  for  a  while  that  children  should  be  taken  care 
of  by  the  Society  from  the  time  they  were  three  years  old.  Many  regarded 
the  later  departure  from  this  rule  as  being  a  step  backward. 

Social  life  was  almost  entirely  lacking,  though  they  had  some  musical 
organizations.  There  were  no  lectures,  concerts,  or  entertainments,  and 
dancing  was  prohibited  as  being  sinful.  There  were  no  higher  institutions  of 
learning,  and  there  seemed  to  be  no  ideal  of  encouraging  learning.  There 
^^as  no  library,  and  the  few  books  to  be  found  were  chiefly  on  religion. 


9 

llie  religious  and  social  and  political  principles  as  set  forth  by  the  Zoar- 
ites,  included  the   following: 

"We  believe  and  confess  the  Trinity  of  God — Father.  Son.  and  Holy 
Ghost. 

"The  return  through  Christ  to  God,  our  proper  Father. 

"The  Holy  Scriptures  as  the  measure  and  guide  to  our  lives  and  the 
touchstone  of  truth  and  falsehood. 

"All  ceremonies  arc  banished  from  among  us.  and  we  declare  them  use- 
less and   injurious,    and   this   is    the   chief   cause    of   our   Separation. 

"Our  marriages  are  contracted  by  mutual  consent,  and  before  witnesses. 
They  are  notified  to  the  political  authority,  and  we  reject  all  intervention 
of  priests  or  preachers. 

".All  intercourse  of  the  sexes,  except  what  is  necessary  to  the  per- 
petuation of  the  species,  we  hold  to  be  sinful  and  contrary  to  the  order  and 
command  of  God. 

"We  cannot  serve  as  soldiers  because  a  Christian  cannot  murder  his 
enemy,  much  less  his  friend. 

"We  regard  pwlitical  government  as  absolutely  necessary  to  maintain  or- 
der and  to  protect  the  good  and  honest  and  punish  the  wrong-doers,  and  no 
one  can  prove  us  to  be  untrue  to  the  constituted  authorities." 

Joseph  .Ackermann.  who  served  as  trustee  for  more  than  half  a  century, 
and  who  had  chief  superintendence  of  much  of  the  colony  when  74  years 
of  age,  was  not  an  intellectual  man.  He  admitted  to  Mr.  Hinds  that  he  was 
discouraged  about  the  future  of  Zoar.  The  younger  generation  had  not  the 
same  earnestness  that  controlled  the  original  members.  They  had  fallen 
into  the  ways  of  the  world,  and  would  not  brook  the  restraints  that  religious 
communism  required.     And  Mr.  Hinds  comments: 

'Evidently  it  is  not  enough  that  a  Community  have  a  religious  afflatus 
and  inteihgent,  earnest  men  at  the  beginning.  It  must  find  means  to  keep 
that  afflatus  alive  and  strong  and  to  replace  its  founders,  as  occasion  re- 
quires, with  men  of  equal  intelligence  and  earnestness  ^-  *  * 

"They  had  no  meetings  except  on  Sunday,  and  these  were  not  gener- 
ally attended  and  were  not  of  a  kind  to  elicit  special  interest  or  enthusiasm 
*  ^  ^  The  women  sat  on  one  side  and  the  men  on  the  other  *  *  *  A  com- 
munity should  be  an  enlarged  home,  differing  from  the  small  home  only  in 
its  increased  attractions  and  its  greater  facilities  for  improving  character. 
Zoar.  at  least  in  its  later  years,  was  not  a  complete  community.  The  prop- 
erty was  held  in  common;  the  agricultural  and  commercial  businesses  were 
carried  on  in  common;  they  had  a  common  church  and  school  house  and 
common  customs  and  principles;  but  each  family  had  its  separate  house- 
hold arrangements:  there  was  no  large  unitary  kitchen  nor  dining  room  nor 
laundry,  and  in  other  respects  the  place  resembled  more  an  ordmary  coun- 
try village  than  a  well-organized  community.     The  hotel  was  thronged  after 


10 

work  hours  with  Kirelings  and  Communists;  and  as  the  former  drank  and 
smoked  and  used  rough  language,  it  would  have  been  strange  indeed  if  some 
of  the  Commurxists  did  not  fall  into  like  bad  habits.  Experience  shows  that  a 
Community  thrives  best  when  some  check  is  placed  upon  the  intercourse 
of  its  members  with  ordinary  society." 

The  Zoarites  had  almost  as  much  trouble  with  seceders  as  the  Harmon- 
ists. Their  covenant  specifically  set  forth  that  all  property  was  the  prof>erty 
■of  the  community  and  that  none  had  personal  individual  rights  above  that 
of  the  community.  Two  cases  in  law  were  won  by  them  which  are  impor- 
tant. One  was  a  decision  by  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States,  and 
again  showed  that  no  person  seceding  can  force  a  division  of  property.  The 
■other  was  in  the  state  court  and  decided  that  no  member  who  subscribed 
to  the  covenant  nor  any  heir  of  bis  should  be  entitled,  in  payment  for  serv- 
ises,  to  a  divisible  share  of  the  property  of  the  Community. 

The  Zoarites  answered  the  question:  What  are  the  advantages  you  enjoy 
!by  reason  of  your  collectivism?    by  answering: 

"The  advantages  are  many  and  great.  All  distinctions  of  rich  and  p>oor 
are  abolished.  The  members  have  no  care  except  for  their  own  spiritual  cul- 
ture. Collectivism  provides  for  the  sick,  the  weak,  the  unfortunate,  all  alike, 
-which  makes  their  life  comparatively  easy  and  pleasant.  In  case  of  great 
loss  by  fire  or  flood  or  other  cause,  the  burden  which  would  be  ruinous  to 
one  is  easily  borne  by  the  many.  Charity  and  genuine  love  one  to  another, 
^vhich  are  the  foundations  of  true  Christianity,  can  be  more  readily  cultivated 
and  practiced  in  collectivism  than  in  common,  isolated  society.  Finally,  a 
community  is  the  best  place  in  which  to  get  rid  of  selfishness,  willfulness,  and 
bad  habits  and  vices  generally;  for  we  are  subject  to  the  constant  surveil- 
lance and  reproof  of  others,  which,  rightly  taken,  will  go  far  toward  pre- 
paring us   for  the  large  Community  above." 

But  the  young  people  did  not  have  the  same  faith  as  the  elders,  and 
this  eventually  led  to  a  division  of  the  property  land  a  return  to  individual 
ownership.  Three  disinterested  persons  made  the  division,  which  proved  to 
be  entirely  satisfactory  to  all.  The  dominating  force  which  had  urged  them 
forward  under  Bimeler  and  Ackermann  were  lacking,  and  the  business  had 
ceased  to  prosper. 

In  the  division — there  were  222  persons  in  the  colony  at  the  time — 
only  full  members  could  share;  but  as  there  were  eleven  first-class  members 
eligible  to  second  class,  these  were  advanced  in  the  interests  of  peace.  This 
made  the  tot" I  233  who  participated,  Jthe  remainder  being  children.  How- 
ever, some  yorng  people  were  made  certain  allowances  also.  At  the  time  of 
the  division  the  colony  possessed  7300  acres  of  land  assessed  at  $340,820, 
and  other  property  worth  $16,250.  The  sale  of  timber  lands  resulted  in 
$15,000  to  the  colony  and  provided  for  the  expenses  of  the  division,  besides 
allotting   $200    to   each    full    member.      The    full    amount   was    about    $2500 


II 

'when  the  entire  division  was  made. 

"Zoar  was  the  most  democratic  of  the  so-called  religious  commimities.** 
»ays  Mr.  Hinds  in  his  '.American  Communities."  "Its  constitution  was  sub- 
ject to  amendment  by  a  two-thirds  vote.  Its  elections  were  conducted  in 
accordance  with  the  laws  of  the  state.  AH  officials  were  elective.  Elective 
members  could  be  recalled  at  any  time.  There  was  no  religious  hierarchy 
and  any   form  of  aristocracy  was  carefully   guarded   against. 

One  of  its  Articles  of  Agreement  stated  that: 

"As  peace  and  unity  can  be  maintained  only  by  a  general  equality 
among  the  members,  it  is  therefore  severally  understood  and  declared  that 
no  extra  demands  shall  be  made  or  allowed  in  respect  to  meat,  drink,  cloth- 
ing, dwellings,  etc..'.  and  the  preamble  adopted  in  1833  affirmed: ".All  in- 
'Cqualities  and  distinctions  of  rank,  and  fortune  shall  be  alwlished  from  amongst 
4is.  that  we  may  live  as  brethren  and  and  sisters  of  one  common  family.' 


12 

ROBERT  OWEN  AND  HIS  COMMUNITIES 

(i825  —  1827) 

Perhaps  the  Community  given  most  general  publicity,  though  about 
which  there  is  a  great  deal  of  misapprehension,  is  the  New  Harmony  colony, 
the  greatest  of  the  Owen  experiments. 

Robert  Owen,  known  as  the  "Father  of  SociaHsm,"  had  world-wide 
schemes  which  attracted  almost  universal  attention  in  the  early  part  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  He  was  the  first  to  advocate  the  shortening  of  hours  of 
work  in  English  factories;  his  was  the  first  factory  to  establish  the  ten-hour 
day — then  a  far  more  radical  thing  than  the  six-hour-day,  five-day-week 
proposal  of  to-day.  He  thought  eight  hours  would  be  enough  eventually. 
He  first  instituted  legislation  in  behalf  of  women  and  children  which  made  it 
impossible  to  employ  children  of  six,  as  had  been  done.  He  founded  the  first 
infant  schools  and  established  the  kindergarten.  He  built  model  lodging 
houses,  public  baths,  "ragged"  schools,  "elder"  schools,  and  other  projects 
to  help  the  working  people.  He  was  almost  a  century  ahead  of  others  in 
seeing  the  necessity  of  such  work.  Though  he  may  be  looked  upon  now 
as  a  reformer,  he  stood  then  as  a  su   per-radical  in  his  demands. 

At  one  time  he  gave  one  third  of  his  fortune  to  the  aid  of  an  educa- 
tional scheme.  He  subscribed  $50,000  in  an  effort  to  help  the  working 
classes.  When  his  Equitable  Bank  failed,  he  shouldered  the  entire  debt,  tho 
he  was  not  responsible  for  it.  The  bank  had  not  been  a  profit-making  de- 
vice, but  one  for  the  assistance  of  workers,  which,  it  was  hoped,  would  pre- 
vent unemployment. 

When  the  New  Harmony  colony  failed,  he  paid  all  of  its  debts  and  left 
$3,000  as  a  contribution  to  the  education  of  its  children.  He  paid  his  opera- 
tives in  his  cotton  mills  full  wages  for  four  years  when  the  mills  shut  down 
during  the  American  embargo  on  cotton.  It  was  his  suggestion  that  five  per 
cent  of  the  profits  be  deducted  and  the  rest  be  used  in  educational  work. 

Owen  became  manager  of  the  New  Lanark  cotton  mills  when  only  28 
years  old.  He  at  once  abolished  pauper  labor — it  had  been  the  system  to 
ship  in  pauper  children  as  mill  hands,  sometimes  as  many  as  500  being  thus 
employed.  He  induced  people  to  quit  pilfering;  drunkenness  became  an 
exception  in  the  village  of  New  Lanark;  the  quality  of  food  and  clothing  used 
by  opera'.ivo  was  greatly  improved,  and  the  cost  reduced  25  per  cent;  hours 
of  labor  \.ere  reduced  and  wages  increased;  schools  for  different  ages  were 
instituted;  amusements,  military  exercises  and  dancing  were  introduced;  lec- 
ture courses  were  arranged.  His  village  became  far  ahead  of  others  in  mor- 
als,  cleanliness,   healthfulness,    happiness,    and   prosperity. 

His  fame  spread  so  far  that  dukes  and  kings  consulted  him  and  Tsar 
Nicholas  of  Russia  stopped  for  two  days  as  a  visitor  in  Owen's  house,  trying 


to  induce  Owen  lo  go  to  Rufsia. 

It  was  Owen's  opinion  that  "human  nature  is  radically  good  and  is  cap- 
able of  being  trained,  educated,  and  placed  from  birth  in  such  a  manner  that 
all  ultimately  become  united,  good.  wise,  healthy,  and  happy."  This  opinion 
was  generally  accepted:  but.  when  Owen  launched  an  attack  on  religion, 
he  drew  the  dislike,  then  the  hatred,  of  the  entire  religious  world,  which  bad 
no  little  power  at  that  time. 

In  1820  Owen  published  a  work  on  the  results  of  Ki$  work  at  New  Lan- 
ark with  a  scheme  for  a  rational  reconstruction  of  society.  He  proposed  lo 
cut  the  world  up  into  villages  of  300  lo  2000  persons,  preferring  about 
800  lo  1200.  His  plan  was  semi-collectivism,  but  he  allowed  a  small  acreage 
to  each  family 

It  was  in  1825  that  Robert  Owen  came  lo  the  United  Slates  and  pur- 
chased the  Harmony  community  from  the  Rappites.  securing  the  30,000  acres 
of  land  and  the  result  of  ten  years  work  with  buildings  and  orchards  and  vine- 
yards and  roads  and  a  greater  value  than  was  represented  in  the  purchase 
price  of  $100,000.  He  invited  the  people  of  all  nations  to  participate,  ex- 
plaining that  it  was  no  move  on  his  part  to  increase  his  own  wealth.  He 
♦•\en  delivered  lectures  in  the  House  of  Representatives  in  the  presence  of 
the  president,  president-elect,  members  of  Congress,  and   many  others. 

Within  a  space  of  six  weeks  a  population  of  800  i>ersons  was  drawn 
together,  and  in  October,  1925,  the  number  was  900.  Other  societies,  taking 
inspiration  from  New  Harmony,  were  established  in  nine  other  places.  Most 
of  them  were  very  short-lived.  The  capital  of  the  New  Harmony  colony  was 
$150,000,  and  everything  was  in  readiness  to  go  ahead,  so  far  as  material 
matters  were  concerned.  Many  prominent  educators  and  scientists,  later  to 
make  their  fame  secure,  were  associated  in  this  work.  The  Owen  family  be- 
came residents  of  this  country,  and  attained  national  fame,  three  of  them 
in  the  second,  and  one  in  ihe  third  generation. 

In  1826  the  community  was  given  a  new  constitution  which  was  ex- 
pected to  adjust  all  difficulties  which  might  arise;  but  it  seems  to  have  iiad 
quite  the  contrary  effect.  The  government  was  in  the  hands  of  a  Committee 
of  Six.  A  General  Assembly  soon  asked  the  Executive  Council  to  request  the 
aid  of  Owen  for  one  year  in  conducting  the  affairs  of  the  community.  Bui 
Owen  could  not  remain,  and  the  colony  fell  into  bad  ways.  Several  splits 
followed,  and  attempts  to  form  new  colonies.  Dissatisfaction  became  greater 
and  greater.     The  end  soon  came. 

Many  reasons  are  given  for  the  failure.  One  ascribes  it  to  the  absence 
cf  Owen  during  the  early  days  of  the  community,  when  his  presence  was 
most  needed.  Another  describes  the  dishonesty  of  one  Taylor.  Another  at- 
tributes it  lo  anxiety  regarding  individual  property.  Still  another  thought 
"it  is  impossible  lo  carry  out  a  communistic  system  unless  in  a  place  utterly 
removed  from  contact  with  the  world,  or  with  the  help  of  some  |>owerful  re- 


14 

ligious    conviction.      Mere    benevolence,    mere    sentiments    of   universal    phil- 
anthropy are  far  too  weak  to  bind  the  self-seeking  affections  of  men." 

Robert  Dale  Owen,  son  of  Robert  Owen,  saad  his  father  made  a  mistake  iir 
not  establishing  his  community  in  England  and  a  greater  mistake  in  admitting^ 
all  comers  into  membership,  without  recommendation  or  examination  what- 
ever. He  once  said:  "At  New  Harmony  there  was  not  disinterested  industry, 
there  was  not  mutual  confidence,  there  was  not  practical  experience,  there 
was  no  union  of  action,  because  there  was  not  unanimity  of  counsel;  and" 
these  were  the  points  of  difference  and  dissension  —  the  rocks  on  which  the 
social  bark  struck  and  was  wrecked." 

Robert  Owen  himself  said  that  he  "wanted  honesty  of  purpose  and  got 
dishonesty;  wanted  temperance  and  got  intemperance;  wanted  industry  and 
found  idleness;  wanted  cleanliness  and  found  dirt;  wanted  carefulness  and 
found  waste;   wanted  fine  desire  for  knowledge  and  found  apathy  ^  '^  ^" 

''In  justice  to  the  memory  of  Robert  Owen  it  should  be  stated/'  says  Hinds, 
''that  late  in  life  he  ceased  to  be  a  mere  materialist,  and  confessed  that  he 
then  saw  (what  he  had  in  previous  life  overlooked)  the  necessity  of  good 
spiritual  conditions  in  forming  the  character  of  man,  and  that  'these  are  the 
most  important  of  all  in  the  future  development  of  mankind.'  " 

Horace  Greeley  and  Chas.  A.  Dana  attributed  the  failure  of  New  Har- 
mony to  the  lack  of  a  religious  basis  upon  which  all  successful  communities 
have  been  founded  —  Owen  having  been  the  first  to  attempt  the  establish- 
ment of  a  non-religious  community.  Greeley  said  that  a  great  obstacle  en- 
countered in  such  experiments  was  "the  class  of  people  attracted — the  con- 
ceited, the  crochety,  and  the  selfish";  while  Dana  concluded:  "Destroy  self- 
hood and  you  destroy  all  motive  to  exertion." 

Others  who  were  associated  with  Owen  give  various  reasons,  according 
to  Lockwood.  One  said:  "He  found  democrats  harder  to  manage  than  the 
servile  workmen  of  Scotland."  Another  reported  that  "the  Owenites  were 
too  independent";  while  a  third  thought  that  he  "did  not  have  enough  depu- 
ties." C.  W.  Burt  believed  that  "Communism  must  be  ruled  either  by  law  or 
grace." 

In  summing  up  the  reasons  for  the  failure  of  the  Owen  colony,  there 
are  several  conditions  which  should  be  considered.  Eight  hundred  or  nine 
hundred  persons  thrown  together  to  carry  out  an  untried  scheme,  most  of 
them  inexperienced  in  things  practical,  many  of  them  carried  by  fine  senti- 
ments instead  of  deep  convictions,  perhaps  a  majority  intent  on  bettering 
their  personal  condition  rather  than  pursuing  a  principle,  and  all  of  them 
strangers  to  one  another. and  likely  to  be  hostile  and  suspicious—  these  alone 
are  enough  to  make  a  problem.  When,  then,  Owen  was  al  sent,  so  that  the 
initial  energy  was  lacking  and  he  had  to  depend  on  those  less  conversant: 
with  his  plan  and  less  skilful  and  able,  it  is  not  surprising  that  trouble  quick- 
ly ensued. 


IS 

Accepting  as  members  all  who  came,  without  examination  or  invcsti- 
eation.  and  without  requiring  them  to  pay  anything,  is  almost  certain  of  gath- 
ering together  people  of  weak  purpose  and  little  principle,  those  most  likcly^ 
to  be  ready  to  throttle  the  entire  enterprise   for  their  own   personal  gain. 

Besides  this,  there  was  no  general  understanding,  though  there  may 
have  been  a  superficial  knowledge,  of  the  plan  and  the  principles  of  thr 
Owen  enterprise.  There  was  no  continued  plan  of  careful  preliminary  edu- 
cation in  colony  methods. 

But  perhaps  most  important  of  all  was  the  lack  of  a  conviction  strong 
enough  to  carry  it  through  the  period  of  organization,  the  period  when  the 
new  had  worn  off.  and  when  the  s|>ectacular  features  had  begun  to  abate. 
Collectivism,  as  may  be  observed  by  the  examples  given  of  various  colonies, 
must  have  the  strength  of  a  religious  conviction,  and  be  carried  through  with 
a  religious  fervor,  it  need  not  have  any  religious  significance,  and  may 
have  not  even  a  place  of  worship;  but  it  must  be  the  religion  itself  in  the 
absence  of  any  other.  The  cohesive  power  of  collectivism  insures  success 
when  those  who  espouse  it  do  so  from  principle;  but  when  this  esjwusal  as- 
from  mere  hope  for  personal  rewards,  aggrandizement,  ease,  or  security,  the 
members  are  likely  to  destroy  the  institution  they  hope  to  build  by  reason  of 
the  selfishness  of  their  personal  desires  and  motives,  and  their  actions  grow- 
ing out  of  those  motives  and  selfish  desires. 

^et,  although  ihe  colony  as  a  whole  was  not  a  success,  it  established' 
certain    standards    and   was    noteworthy    in    many   ways. 

.Among  the  outgrowths  of  the  unfortunate  New  Harmony  colony  of 
Robert  Owen,  was  the  Nashoba  Colony,  near  Memphis,  which  was  launchecT 
by  Frances  Wright,  who  was  associated  with  Robert  Owen  and  Robert  Dale 
Owen  and  later  with  William  Owen.  Francis  Wright  intended  this  to  elevate 
the  negroes,  but  it  was  founded  on  slavery  and  never  developed  as  its 
founders  expected.  Later  Francis  Wright  was  associated  with  the  New  Har- 
mony movement,  and  a  quarter  of  a  century  later  founded  what  eventually 
became  the  first  genuine  woman's  club.  She  toured  the  country  lecturing  on 
equality  for  the  sexes,  and  making  particularly  strong  attacks  on  the  un- 
just property  laws  which  put  men  legally  much  above  women.  She  was  the 
first   to  talk   for  equal   suffrage  and  attracted  widespread  attention. 

New  Harmony  took  the  lead  in  prohibition  of  the  liquor  traffic,  in  equal- 
ity of  men  and  women,  liberalism  in  religious  views,  and  education. 

Mr.  Owen  said:  'The  greatest  waste  and  loss  result  from  the  disunited 
minds  and  feelings  of  mankind.  Armies,  churches,  lawyers,  doctors,  and  ex- 
clusive universities  are  the  greatest  obstacles  to  progress  *  '•"  '^  There  is  great 
loss  from  the  separation  of  the  trades  and  the  expense  of  exchange  and 
transportation  '•■"  '•■  '^" 

"The  practice  of  the  rational  religion  will  consist  in  promoting,  to  the 
utmost  of  our  power,  the  happiness  and  well-being  of  every  man,  woman,  and 


16 

child,  without  regard  to  their  sect,  party,  or  color;  and  its  worship,  in  these 
anexpressible  feelings  of  wonder,  admiration,  and  delight,  which,  when  man 
is  surrounded  by  superior  circumstances  only,  will  naturally  arise  from  the 
contemplation  of  the  infinity  of  space,  of  the  eternity  of  duration,  of  the  or- 
der of  the  universe,  and  of  that  Incomprehensible  Power  by  which  the  atom 
is  moved  and  the  aggregate  of  nature  as   governed." 

There  is  no  questionmg  the  fact  that  New  Harmony  was  far  ahead  of  its 
time  in  many  of  its  institutions.  It  established  the  first  infant  school  in  Amer- 
ica in  1826;  the  first  kindergarten  of  any  type  in  the  Western  World;  the 
first  use  of  the  kindergarten  as  a  part  of  the  public  school  system;  the  first 
distinctly  trade  school,  and  the  second  industrial  school;  the  first  industrial 
school  of  any  type  to  be  made  a  part  of  the  free  public  school  system;  the  first 
free  public  school  system;  the  first  real  public  school  west  of  the  Appalachian, 
mountains. 

It  seems  as  a  fitting  climax  to  the  Owen  activities  —  for  the  Owen  fam- 
ily became  well  known,  even  famous  in  the  second  generation  —  that  Rich- 
Owen  d-ied  at  the  age  of  81  at  New  Harmony  in  1890. 

"Whatever  may  be  thought  of  Robert  Owen's  theories,  schemes,  and 
experiments,"  comments  Hinds,  "his  motives  were  of  the  noblest.  Not  per- 
sonal aggrandizement,  but  the  good  of  humanity,  was  the  central,  dominant 
object  of  his  life.  In  his  own  words:  'Crown,  coronet,  mitres,  military  dis- 
plays, pomp  of  war,  wide  colonies,  and  a  huge  empire  are,  in  my  view,  all 
trifles  light  as  air  unless  with  them  you  can  have  a  fair  share  of  cov/tent- 
ment,  comfort,  and  .happiness  among  the  great  body  of  the  people.'  " 


17 

HOPED  ALE    COM  Ml  MTY 

(  1842—1868  ) 

The  Hopedale  Community,  originally  called  Fraternal  Community  No  I, 
was  formed  at  Mendon,  Massachusetts.  January  28,  1841.  by  about  thirty 
individuals  from  different  parts  of  the  state,  and  began  operations  in  1842. 
It  attained  a  total  population  of  275  persons,  had  800  acres  of  land,  thirty 
dwelling  houses,  three  mechanic  shops,  water  power,  woodworking  and  other 
machinery,  and  a  small  chapel  also  used  as  a  school  house,  and  barns  and 
outbuildings. 

It  was  a  Fourier  experiment  and  was  organized  by  Rev.  Adin  Ballou, 
who  put  his  entire  energy  into  it.  The  failure  of  the  colony  in  1868  almost 
proved  the  death  of  the  founder,  who  was  a  man  of  the  finest  sentiments,  and 
one  who  worked  mentally  and  physically  to  make  the  colony  a  success. 

The  colony  was  founded  on  religious  principles,  and  a  description  of 
it  written  at  the  time  says:  It  is  an  educational  society,  preparing  to  act 
an  important  part  in  the  training  of  the  young.  It  is  a  socialistic  Commun- 
ity, successfully  actualizing  as  well  as  promulgating  practical  Christian  So- 
cialism —  the  only  kind  of  socialism  likely  to  establish  a  true  social  stale 
on  earth.  It  guarantees  to  all  of  its  members  and  dependents  employment, 
at  least  adequate  to  a  comfortable  subsistence,  relief  in  want,  sickness,  and 
distress,  decent  opportunities  for  religious,  moral,  and  intellectual  culture,  an 
orderly   and   well-regulated   neighborhood  ^'   '^   '•'" 

It  was  originally  expected  that  Hopedale  should  be  but  one  of  a  chain 
of  colonies  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  "co-ordinated  and  organically  united 
in  a  great  federation  styled  "The  Practical  Christian  Communism."  This 
was  changed  to  give  complete  attention  to  Hopedale  alone,  for  this  would 
demand  the  entire   attention   of  all  able  persons   in   it. 

The  government  of  the  Hopedale  Community  was  placed  in  the  hands 
of  three  trustees,  who  were  to  account  directly  to  the  whole  body  of  their 
ie'low  associates.  But  many  long-drawn-out  discussions  were  still  held  and 
there  was  much  criticism,  so  that  monthly  meetings  were  held  for  Christian 
discipline  and  improvement.  Action  was  taken  at  them  on  instances  of  con- 
duct of  members  when  this  did  not  meet  with  general  approval.  It  must 
have  been  similar  to  the  General  Assembly  of  other  colonies,  and  akin  to 
the    Mutual    Criticism    of    the    Oneida    Community. 

Industrial  and  financial  improvement  followed,  and  in  1852  the  treas- 
urer's report  was  so  glowing  that  a  general  celebration  was  held.  Adin  Bal- 
lou thought  it  time  to  retire  as  president,  after  his  years  of  organizing  and 
managing  and  hard  physical  work  along  with  the  rest  of  them.  But  almost 
immediately  misfortunes  began  to  set  in.  A  benefactor  of  the  community. 
Susan  Fish.  died,  and  the  son  of  Adin  Ballou  also  passed  away   in  his    l9tK 


18 

year.  Two  of  the  oldest  members  of  the  community  died  soon  after.  A  free; 
love  episode  gave  great  notoriety  to  the  colony  and  disturbed  the  members^ 
though  the  offenders  were   forced   to   leave. 

But  in  spite  of  these  misfortunes,  the  community  thrived,  and  plans  were 
made  for  a  branch  colony  in  Minnesota.  This  effort  was  a  fadlure,  how- 
ever. In  1856  the  colony  showed  a  deficit  of  $145,  besides  passing  divi- 
dends on  stock,  amounting  to  $1652.  Depreciation  had  not  been  allowed 
for,  either,  so  thet  the  deficit  was  really  serious,  and  finally  a  firm  which 
nad  secured  three  fourths  of  the  rtock  took  charge  or  it. 

"The  Hopedale  Community,"  says  Hinds,  "was  an  attempt  to  combine- 
individual  and  common  interests,  the  members  being  permitted  to  hold  prop- 
erty and  carry  on  business  independently  of  the  Community;  and  it  is  note- 
worthy fact  that  at  least  in  the  case  of  (the  firm  which  forclosed  the  col- 
ony), their  individual  interests,  even  when  one  of  them  was  President  and 
the  other  Treasurer,  yielded  them  larger  profits  than  the  entire  profits  of  the 
Community,  being  in  1855  over  $7000,  and  such  individual  business 
must  have  absorbed  a  large  share  of  their  attention,  and  correspondmgly  di- 
verted it  from  the  Community's  business;  and  a  record  is  yet  to  be  found 
of  a  Community  that  attained  permanent  success  under  such  a  handicap  of 
rampant  individualism."     This  was  also  Ballou's  summary. 

The  wonder  is  that  the  community  existed  so  long  under  such  conditions. 
It  tried  to  pay  interest  on  the  investment,  which  was  far  from  being  the 
spirit  of  collectivist  communities,  and  it  permitted  a  very  unequal  ownership' 
of  interests  in  the  community.  With  the  machinery  of  capitalistic  or  com- 
petitive business  a  part  of  the  colony,  and  special  inducemerts  held  out  to- 
make  use  of  it  to  the  benfits  of  individuals  rather  than  to  the  community^ 
it  is  no  wonder  that  the  community  did  net  prosper,  but  it  is  marvelous  that 
it  was  able  to  go  so  long  under  such  conditions. 


le- 


FOURIER    AND    HIS    EXPERIMENTS 

Charles  Fourier  of  France  and  his  scheme  of  social  regeneration  inflamed" 
the  imagination  of  hundreds  cf  thousands  of  people  on  both  sides  of  th 
Atlantic.  In  1842  he  arranged  for  the  full  control  of  a  column  in  t'le  daily- 
New  York  Tribune,  and  for  more  than  a  year  filled  it  with  matter  of  interest 
to  thousands  of  readers.  His  plan  commanded  a  large  s'lare  of  public  atten- 
tion and  Albert  Brisbane  and  Horace  Greeley  were  in  hearty  accord  with  it. 
Six  colonies  or  associations  or  "phalanxes,"  as  they  were  called,  were  formed" 
in  Ohio,  seven  in  New  York,  six  in  Pennsylvenia,  two  in  Massachusetts,  two 
in  Illinois,  two  in  New  Jersey,  one  in  Michigan,  three  in  Wisconsin,  and  one: 
in  Indiana  —  a  total  cf  30  in  ril. 


19 

Ten    of   them    fajled   to   fim>h    the    lirM    year,   seven    failed   to    finish    the 

second  year,  three  did  not  reach  the  third  year,  and  all  the  reyt  had  failed  b«- 
fore  the  sixth  year,  with  the  exception  of  the  North  American  Phalanx  above 
noted.  The  list  as  gisen  by  Mr.  Hinds  in  "American  Communilie*."  shows 
thirty  communities  formed  during  this  period. 

Duration 

.Sfjlf^        \f*tnk  A,.--  D 

Alphadelphia    Phalanx 

Bloomfield   Association 

Brook  Farm  Community 

Bureau    County    Phalanx 

Clarkson    Industrial    Association 

Clermont    Phalanx 

Columbia  Phalanx 

Goose  Pond  Community 

Integral    Phalanx 

Jefferson   Co.   Indu.   Assn. 

La  Grange  Phalanx 

Leraysville    Phalanx 

McKean  Co.  Assn. 

Marlboro  Association 

Mcoiehouse   Union 

North  American  Phalanx 

Northampton    Association 

Ohio  Phalanx 

Onc-.Mention  Commuaity 

Ontario  Community 

Prairie    Home   Community 

Raritan  Bay  Union 

Social   Reform  Unity 

Sodus  Bay  Phalanx 

Sp'-ing  Farm  Association 

Sylvania    .Association 

Trumbull    Phalanx 

Unitarian   Association 

Western  N.  Y.   indust.  .Assn. 

Wisconsin  Phalanx 

(Information  from  Hinds*  ".American  Communities") 
There  were  apparently  others  not  on  this  list.     .As  Hinds  comments,  "TTie 
piojectors  had  more  zeal  than  wisdom,  and  the  hope  of  better  social  condi- 
tioos  is  so  strong  in  the  human  heart  that  people  are  easily  induced  to  risk 
everything  in   their  attempted   realization." 


State 

Memb. 

Acres 

Begun 

Years 

Mich. 

200 

2814 

1844 

2^4 

N.  Y. 

148 

500 

1844 

1/2 

.Mass. 

115 

200 

1841 

Vl 

III. 

} 

? 

1843 

? 

N.  Y. 

420 

2000 

1844 

Vz 

Ohio 

120 

900 

1844 

IVi 

Ohio 

128 

large 

1844 

I 

Ptnn. 

60 

2000 

1844 

III. 

120 

508 

1845 

Wi 

N.  Y. 

400 

1200 

1843 

I 

Ind. 

120 

1045 

1844 

2 

Penn. 

40 

1500 

1844 

Va 

Pcnn. 

} 

30.000 

1843 

> 

Ohio 

24 

} 

1841 

4 

N.  Y. 

} 

? 

1843 

1 

N.  J. 

112 

673 

1843 

13 

Mass. 

130 

500 

1842 

4 

Ohio 

100 

2200 

1844 

Va 

Penn. 

40 

800 

1843 

1 

N.  Y. 

150 

150 

1844 

? 

Orio 

130 

500 

1843 

1 

N.  J. 

268 

1853 

? 

Penn. 

20 

2000 

1842 

V^ 

N.  Y. 

300 

1400 

1844 

—mo 

Wis. 

40 

1846 

3 

Penn. 

145 

2393 

1843 

2 

Ohio 

200 

1500 

1844 

3 

Wis. 

200 

1844 

Vl 

N.  Y. 

350 

1400 

1844 

Wis. 

180 

1800 

1844 

6 

20 

Four  of  these  projects,  however,  are  worthy  of  some  attention.  These 
are  Brook  Farm,  perhaps  one  of  the  best  know  in  history;  the  North  Amer- 
acan  Phalanx;  Northampton  Association;  and  the  Wisconsin  Phalanx.  Though 
Fourier  furnished  the  inspiration  for  these  communities,  he  was  not  responsi- 
ble for  iheir  being  started,  and  they  did  not  become  demonstrations  of  his 
ideas. 


Brook  Farm  —  1841  -  1847 

Brook  Farm  was  organized  in  1841  and  gathered  together  orators, 
philosophers,  poets,  authors.  It  numbered  some  of  the  most  famous  men  in 
American  letters  as  its  members.  Perhaps  best  known  of  them  is  Nathaniel 
Hawthorne,  who  wrote  concerning  Brook  Farm: 

^  ^  *  We  meant  to  lessen  the  laboring  man's  great  burden  of  toil  by- 
performing  our  due  share  of  it  at  the  cost  of  our  own  thews  and  sinews.  We 
sought  our  profit  by  mutual  aid.  instead  of  wresting  it  by  the  strong  hand 
ot  the  enemy,  or  filching  it  craftily  from  those  less  shrewd  than  ourselves 
(if  indeed  there  are  any  such  in  New  England),  or  winning  it  by  selfish 
competition  with  a  neighbor;  in  one  or  another  of  which  fashions  every  son 
of  woman  both  perpetrates  and  suffers  his  share  of  the  common  evil,  whether 
he  chooses  it  or  not.  ^  ^  ^   " 

Brook  Farm  does  not  owe  its  origin  to  Fourierism,  but  to  Transcenden- 
talism and  was  the  outgrowth  of  an  organization  of  cultured  Boston  people. 
Rev.  George  Ripley  was  the  founder;  he  was  a  minister  in  a  Unitarian 
church. 

The  plan  of  organization  was  the  common  ownership  of  industries,  equal 
wages,  a  common  guaranty  of  support  of  all  members,  their  children  and 
family  dependents,  house  rent,  food,  clothing,  and  other  necessaries  furnished 
without  cost  exceeding  a  certain  amount  fixed  annually  by  the  members. 
No  charge  was  made  for  support  during  inability  to  labor  from  sickness  or 
old-age,  except  to  share-holders,  and  then  not  to  exceed  interest  on  their 
shares.  No  charge  was  made  for  education.  Shares  of  stock  were  SIOQ 
with  interest  at  5   per  cent   guaranteed. 

In  1844  the  community  became  a  Fourier  organization.  The  commun- 
ity was  incorporated.  And  the  government  of  it  consisted  of  a  General 
Council  consisting  of  the  Council  of  Industry  of  five  members;  a  council  of 
Finance  with  four  members;  a  Council  of  Science  with  three  members;  and 
the  Central  Council  formed  of  the  President  and  the  chairman  of  the  othei 
three  councils.  There  were  Series  of  Workers,  as  the  Farming  Series,  the 
Mechanical  Series,  the  Domestic  Series,  each  Series  being  composed  of 
groups.  Thus  the  Farming  Series  had  a  Cattle  Group,  a  Milking  Group,  a 
Plowing  Group,  a  Nursery  Group,  a  Planting  Group,  a  Hoeing  Group,  a  Weed- 
ing Group,  a  Haying  Group,  etc.     In  a  community  of  70  members  this  cum- 


bersomc    machinery    of    government    must    have    greatly   interfered    with    rffi- 
ciency. 

Brook  Farm  was  not  a  financial  success.  There  was  a  dearth  of  work- 
ers. However,  there  were  numerous  a|)plication»  for  membership,  though 
many  of  the  applicants  were  totally  unfitted  for  such  an  enterprise.  Four 
thousand  visitors  came  in  one  year.  Industries  did  not  pay.  The  burning  of 
a  building  under  construction  after  $7000  had  been  s|)ent  on  it  was  de- 
pressing, and  one  by  one  the  members  lost   heart   and  left. 


THE     NORTH     AMERICAN     PHALANX  —  (1843  to  1856; 

This  was  organized  on  August  12.  1843.  and  began  practical  oj>erations 
in  September  of  the  same  year.  It  was  the  longest-lived  of  all  the  Fourier 
experiments,   surviving   until   January.    1856. 

In  a  letter  published  in  December.  1844.  it  was  said  that  the  colony  had 
finished  a  dwelling  to  accommodate  100  persons,  each  family  having  a  par- 
lor and  two  bedrooms,  and  that  there  was  in  operation  a  blacksmith  shop 
and  machine  shop  and  a  saw  mill.  Four  hundred  acres  of  land  were  ready 
for  cultivation. 

In    1854   the    New   ^  ork   Tribune    published   an    article    in    which   it    was 
stated:   "The  domain  consists  of  673  acres,  and  there  is  a  flour  mill  and  saw 
mill,   a   mansion    house,   a    two-story   brick   building,    besides    carpenter   shops 
and  a  blacksmith  shop.  '^  ^'  ^  The  domain  with  all  of  its  improvements  is  val- 
ued at  $67,350.     The  phalanx  numbers  about   100  members.     Labor  is  credit- 
ed by  the  hour.     Each  F>c«'son  is  charged  with  his  board,  lodging,  and  what- 
ever he  receives  from  the  association,  and  the  balance  due  is  paid.     All  eat 
in  the  same  dining  hall;    a  bill  of  fare  is  made  out   as  at   an  eating   house, 
and  every  one  orders  what   he  likes  and  is  charged  accordingly.  *  *  *  The 
business  of  drying   fruit   is  carried  on  to  some  extent.     Some   kinds  of   fruit 
arc  bottled.  *  *  ^  They  have   70  acres  of  apple  and  peach  trees  and  raise 
large    crops   of   |X)tatoes.    tomatoes,    turnips,    melons,    cucumbers,    and    garden 
seeds.     Wheat,  rye.  and  buckwheat    flour,  cornmeal.   samp,   and  hominy   are 
manufactured   and   sold   in    New   ^ork." 

The  end  of  the  colony  was  unexpected,  and  seems  not  to  be  fully  ex- 
plained by  the  information  available.  The  members  had  gathered  to  erect 
a  new  mill,  and  while  they  were  trying  to  decide  on  a  location,  some  one 
raised  the  question  as  to  whether  there  was  any  use  in  going  further  with 
the  experiment.  A  vote  was  taken,  and  a  majority  was  found  to  be  in  favor 
■of  dissolution.  The  property  was  sold  at  forced  sale,  bringing  only  65  cents 
on  the  dollar,  despite  the  fact  that  the  stock  had  paid  a  fair  dividend  for  sev- 
eral years;  the  rate  being  between  four  and  fnc  per  cent,  in  addition  to  wages 
to   members   and   workers. 


2L 

The  colony  had  existed  for  more  than  12  years  and  had  passed  thru 
the  preHminary  trials.  They  spent  the  days  in  labor  and  the  nights  fn  legisla- 
tion for  the  first  five  years,  but  had  passed  thru  that  period.  They  were 
financially  successful.     Hinds   asks: 

"What  did  break  at  up?  No  one  has  given  a  satisfactory  answ^er.  The 
burning  of  the  mill,  which  was  the  immediate  occasion,  was  no  sufficient 
cause  of  the  break  up,  as  Horace  Greeley  offered  to  loan  $12,000  to  build 
a  new  one.  There  was  some  religious  controversy  ^  •'  ^  there  was  some 
evil  ihinking  of  the  stock-holders;  there  was  a  lack  of  educational  fucilitfes. 
Bucklin,  one  of  its  prcsicjents,  considered  thai  its  wage-regulation  was  the 
principal  cause  of  the  dissolution,  too  little  difference  being  made  between 
the  labor  of  brain  and  muscle.  He  said  the  chief  of  the  agricultural  depart- 
ment received  only  ten  cents  an  hour;  a  skilful  teacher  received  only  nine 
cents,  but  was  able  to  go  outside  and  receive  $5  for  only  two  hours'  work. 
A  foreman  received  only  five  or  ten  cents  more  than  other  workers. 

"But  all  this  talk,"  comments  Hinds,  "about  wage  troubles,  to  my  mind, 
only  proves  that  the  great  objects  which  originally  drew  the  members  to- 
gether had  lost  their  first  power  over  them  and  that  lower  and  more  mater- 
ial considerations  were  becoming  dominant  in  their  minds  and  hearts.  That 
is  usually,  perhaps  always,  the  case  when  any  such  organization  starts  on 
its  downward  course;  and,  alas!  there  are  too  few  eager  to  call  the  atten-. 
tion  of  the  faint-hearted  to  the  fact  that  the  Society  was  organized  for  the 
very  purpose  of  destroying  such  wage  and  wealth  distinctions  as  they  now 
cover,  and  could  not  exist  without  them;  and  that  the  sweetest  joy  in  this 
world  comes,  not  from  riches  and  what  riches  can  procure,  but  from  sharing 
life's  burdens  with  others  '^  '^  ^.  When  this  sentiment  was  wholly  displaced 
in  a  Phalanx,  Association,  or  Community,  it  is  about  time  to  make  arrange- 
ments with  the  undertakers." 

It  is  quite  apparent,  however,  that  a  community  organized  to  carry  into 
effect  the  principles  of  collectivism,  but  which  pays  interest  on  money  in- 
vested or  dividends  on  stock,  and  besides  this  makes  differences  in  wages, 
had  set  up  divisions  which  do  not  give  it  much  advantage  over  the  world 
of  competition,  and  which  bring  certain  disadvantages.  It  shows  a  remark- 
able tenacity  of  life  that  it  existed  for  so  many  years  under  conditions  that 
seem  to  have  held  with  the  Colony  the  seeds  of  dissolution. 


The  Northampton  Association  —  1842  -  184S 

Samuel  L.  Hill  was  among  the  founders  of  this  colony,  for  a  time  treas- 
urer, and  a  continuous  member.  Its  full  name  was  The  Northampton  Associa- 
tion of  Education  and  Industry.  It  was  organized  in  1842  at  Northampton, 
Mass.,  and  existed  for  five  years.  It  had  500  acres  of  land,  and  for  a  time 
one  of  the  industries  was  growing  silk,  as  there  were  many  mulberry  tree* 


23 

on  the  estate.     The  total  cash  investment  was  $20,000.     The  colony  school 
was  successful,  e.xisting  during  the  entire  life  of  the  colmy.  with  some  pupils 
sent  from  other  places.     Among  the  colonists  were  educated  men  and  women 
and    some    professional    people:     a    majority    were    middle-class,    substantial 
people.     All   worked  with   hands  as  well  as  brains,  and  they   never   had  any 
serious    trouble    in    getting    the    most    menial    tasks    |>erformcd.    though    there 
may    have    been    some    jealousy    between    the    less   educated   and    the    more 
intellectual  as  there  is  likely  to  be  in  any  form  of  society,  collective  or  other- 
wise.    The  Colony   had   from    130  to    140   members.      The   management    was 
democratic,    both    men    and    women    being    invited    to    propose    and    discuss 
measures.     Wages  were  paid   from  the  beginning.     All   ate  at   a  common   ta- 
ble.    Food  and  lights  were  charged  at  about  50  cents  a  week  at  the  board- 
ing house  and  from   75   cents  to  $1.00  a  week   in    private   houses.      Religion 
had  no  part  in  colony  life;    some  were  religious,  some  were  not.     There  was 
some    friction'  when    ministers    were    brought    in    to    meetings,    as    the    agree- 
ment   also    permitted    free    discussion    and    resulted    in    dissatisfaction.     Some 
members   withdrew,   taking   capital   with   them. 

Lack  of  sufficient  capital  was  given  as  the  cause  of  the  final  disband- 
menl  of  the  colony.  The  management  of  the  division  of  the  estate  was  so 
lareful  that  no  money  was  lost.  The  members  lost  I'.-.c.  t:mc,  and  what- 
ever chances  they  might  otherwise  have  had  for  personal  advancement,  but 
most  of  them  considered  the  experience  worth  it,  probably,  as  many  so  ex- 
pressed themselves. 


THE    WISCONSIN     PHALANX  —  (  1844—1350  ) 

On  Saturday.  May  25,  1844,  nineteen  men  and  one  boy  entered  the 
Ceresco  Valley  in  Fond-du-Lac  County,  Wisconsin  to  establish  the  Wisconsin 
Phalanx.  The  nearest  sawmill  was  22  miles  away,  and  they  built  their  first 
houses  of  split  logs.  Sixteen  families  went  through  the  first  winter  with 
only  two  buildings  20  x  30  feet  and  one  and  one-half  stories  high.  In  1846 
there  were  180  resident  members,  mostly  of  the  working  class,  with  no  law- 
yers. doctoKs.  or  ministers  among  them,  though  there  were  men  c;  much 
ab.lity   in    the   group. 

At  the  end  of  each  year  an  appraisal  of  properly  was  made,  and  one 
fourth  of  the  ascertained  profits  went  to  capital  and  the  remaining  three 
fourths  to  the  members,  according  to  the  number  of  hours  of  labor  put  in. 
Board  was  charged  at  cost,  and  never  exceeded  75  cents  a  week.  The  col- 
ony was  financially  successful,  paying  eight  per  cent  to  stockholders  in  1850. 
Ten  thousand  bushels  of  wheat  were  raised  one  season.  No  intoxicating 
drinks  were  allowed  to  be  sold,  and  there  was  never  a  lawsuit.  Religious 
sects  were  tolerated. 

Hinds   quotes    Everett    Chamberlain   as    follows:    "There   was    a    faithful 


24 

attempt  to  carry  out  the  complicated  plan  of  Fourier  in  personal  credits 
and  the  equalization  of  labor  by  reducing  all  to  what  was  called  the  class  of 
usefulness;  and  under  this  arrangement  some  of  the  most  skilled  workmen 
were  able  to  score  as  many  as  25  hours  labor  in  one  day  —  a  paradox  in 
time-keeping  which  was  exceedingly  amusing  to  the  skillful  ones  and  corre- 
spondingly perplexing  to  the  unskillful,  since  everybody  drew  stock  or  cash 
on  settlement  day  in  proportion  to  his  credit  on  the  daily  record." 

Warren  Chase,  leader  in  the  enterprise  is  quoted  as  follows:  "It  was  a 
social  failure  largely  because  we  could  not  at  the  time  make  the  home  at- 
tractive and  pleasant.  Many  thought  they  could  do  better  with  their  means 
on  the  outside.  We  could  not  induce  others  with  means  to  join  us  and  pur- 
chase the  stock  of  the  discontented  ^  ^  ^  A  little  town  which  had  grown  up 
near  us  with  whiskey  shops  became  a  great  annoyance  and  with  its  prejudice, 
falsehoods,  and  abuse  greatly  aided  in  the  dissolution  of  the  Phalanx  *  *  *" 
He  also  says  that  the  property  qualification  was  a  bad  thing  as  they  "often 
rejected  the  better  and  accepted  the  worse  because  the  worse  had  the  prop- 
rerty  qualification."  Another  explained  the  cause  of  failure  as  being  spec- 
ulation— "the  love  of  money  and  the  want  of  love  for  association." 

"It  would  be  interesting  to  group  together  all  the  reasons  which  have 
been  given  for  the  non-success  of  associate  experiments,"  says  Hinds;  "and 
it  would  be  no  less  interesting  to  note  that  many  of  them  possessed  the 
very  conditions  deemed  the  most  essential  to  success  by  others.  How  many 
of  the  Phalanxes  and  communities  which  have  come  to  premature  death 
have  ascribed  their  mortality  to  a  debt  or  poor  land  or  sickness  or  laziness 
or  quarrels  about  property  titles  or  leadership,  or  religion,  or  to  sexual 
irregularities?  But  the  Wisconsin  Phalanx  was  always  free  from  debt,  had 
a  splendid  domain  of  1800  acres,  was  in  a  healthful  climate,  had  no  trou- 
ble with  lazy  ones  worth  mentioning,  had  no  quarrel  about  land  titles,  its 
principal  founder  ma.intaining  throughout  the  experiment  the  confidence  of 
the  members;  religious  differences  created  no  trouble — and  still  it  failed  like 
the  rest." 

Noyes,  in  his  "History  of  American  Socialism,"  after  reviewing  the  ex- 
perience of  the  Phalanx  concluded  that  "the  coroner's  verdict  must  be:   Died 

. not  by  any  of  the  common  diseases  of  Associations;    such  as  poverty,  dis-' 

sension,  lack  of  wisdom,  mortality,  or  religion,  but  by  deliberate  suicide  for 
reasons  not  fully  disclosed." 

However,  those  who  have  had  experience  and  have  keenly  observed 
co-operatives  and  Communities  will  not  hesitate  to  put  their  finger  on  at 
least  one  cause  —  the  one  pointed  out  by  the  writer  who  said  that  the  "love 
of  money  and  want  of  love  for  the  association  *  ^  *"  In  a  form  of  society 
^where  unequal  allotments  are  made,  no  matter  what  the  excuse  or  reason 
or  how  fine  the  system,  dissatisfaction  is  certain  to  follow,  and  these  unequal 
rewards  result  in  a  superior  class  with  opportunities  for  greater  leisure,  and 


25 

an  inferior  class  class  which  will  feel  it  is  \>cmg  oppressed.  Tlie  surprising 
thing  is  that  such  a  society  should  have  lived  so  long.  A  Community  de|>ends 
on  the  spirit  of  its  members,  and  when  conditions  are  such  that  they  pin 
their  faith  and  hopes  and  shape  their  ends  toward  individual  advantages 
and  benefits,  the  essential  spirit  of  co-0|)eration  and  the  cohesiveness  neces- 
sary to  success  must  be  lacking,  and  failure  is  a  matter  of  lime  only. 


A   COM  Ml  WIT)     OF   SWEDfJS 

1846—1862 

Eric  Janson.  a  native  of  Sweden,  received  a  vision  which  instructed 
him  to  do  certain  thuigs  and  which  also  miraculously  cured  him  of  a  severe 
attack  of  rheumatism.  He  became  a  religious  leader  and  attracted  a  con- 
siderable following,  which  was  subjected  to  much  {persecution.  Janson 
was  charged  with  atrocious  crimes  and  stood  trial,  but  defended  himself 
successfully.  His  fame  grew,  and  the  |>eople  deserted  the  churches  to  follow 
Janson.  The  incensed  clergy  had  Janson  arrested  six  times.  The  king, 
before  whom  Janson  was  brought  twice,  had  him  freed  each  time,  but  the 
clergy  continued  their  persecution,  until  Janson  left  Sweden  for  .America 
to  found  a  Community.  A  disciple.  Olaf  Olson,  had  come  in  advance  to 
find  a   suitable   location. 

The  first  colonists  arrived  in  1846  and  part  of  them  made  much  of 
the  journey  to  Henry  County.  Illinois,  by  foot,  where  they  established  the 
Bishop  Hill  Community.  They  acquired  an  improved  farm  of  80  acres, 
but  the  rest  of  the  land  was  unbroken  virgin  soil.  The  colonists  dug  caves 
in  narrow  ravines  and  roofed  them  over  with  fwlcs  covered  with  sod.  living 
in  them  for  several  years.  Their  fare  was  scanty  and  coarse.  They  were 
harrassed  by   fevers,  and  finally  cholera  took    114  inside  of  two  weeks. 

One  of  the  first  buildings  erected  was  a  log  church  large  enough  to 
accommodate  1000  persons.  Twelve  young  men  were  given  a  short  course 
in  English  and  sent  out  to  carry  on  evangelical  work.  In  the  Commun- 
ity work  was  carried  on  during  most  of  the  daylight  hours.  There  were 
no  amusements,  no  beauty.  Without  money  or  credit  they  went  forward 
despite  disease  and  hardships,  though  200  left  in  1848.  because  they  could 
not    agree    with   Janson 's    claims    as    a    religious    prophet. 

However,  harvests  were  bountiful,  and  buildings  of  adobe,  sun-dried 
and  burned  brick,  were  put  up.  One  of  the  brick  structures  was  four  stories 
in  height.  100  feet  long,  and  45  feet  wide.  They  bought  limber  lands 
and  pul  up  a  sawmill.  Health  improved  with  better  food  and  better  living 
conditions. 

One  John  Root,  an  educated  Swede,  and  Mexican  war  veteran,  was 
allowed  to  marry  a  cousin  in  the  Colony.  Against  the  written  stipulation 
that    he    should    never    lake    her    from    the    colony,    he    attempted    to    do    so. 


26 

When  she  refused,  he  resorted  to  force  on  two  occasions.  Both  times  she 
was  rescued  and  brought  back.  At  one  time,  by  relays  of  horses,  the  150- 
mile  rescue  trip  was  made  without  a  stop.  Root  returned,  gathered  a  mob, 
and  proposed  storming  the  Community;  but  neighbors  gathered  in  defense 
of  the  colonists,  whom  they  esteemed  for  their  industriousness.  Root  pushed 
Jegal  proceedings  against  Janson,  and  during  a  noon  recess  entered  the 
court  room  and  shot  Janson.  The  effect  on  the  Community  was  extremely 
bad;  for  they  had  looked  on  their  leader  as  one  who  would  not  die.  For 
a   time  many  expected  that  Janson  would  return   to   life. 

The  colony  at  this  time  numbered  one  thousand  people.  The  leader- 
ship passed  to  others,  but  the  Community  continued  to  prosper.  Hinds 
says:  "It  owned  thousands  of  acres  of  fertile  land,  had  a  hundred  horses, 
sixty  yoke  of  oxen,  large  droves  of  cattle,  abundance  of  food.  They 
cultivated  immense  fields,  having  one  year  700  acres  of  broom  corn.  They 
erected  large  brick  dwellings,  a  church  and  hotel,  a  large  flour  mill,  work 
ihops,  school  houses  ^  ^  -^^  Their  100-foot,  four-story  brick  building  was 
extended  to  200  feet.  The  first  floor  was  used  as  a  common  kitchen,  the 
second  as  a  common  dining  room,  and  the  whole  community  ate  in  this 
loom.  The  upper  stories  were  used  as  dormitories.  Other  buildings  were 
put  up,  including  some  used  at  various  points  during  the  farming  season 
to   save   time   and   labor. 

A  Board  of  seven  trustees  was  to  hold  office  during  good  behavior, 
subject  to  a  majority  vote  of  the  male  members  of  the  Community.  A  full 
report  was  made  to  the  members  once  each  year,  in  January,  at  which 
general  business  was  discussed.  The  colony  was  prosperous  in  every  way. 
Hinds  comments: 

"This  experiment  certainly  possessed  many  of  the  elements  of  permanent 
success.  It  had  good  material  in  the  religious  character  of  its  members.  It 
had  the  qualities  which  Owen  vainly  sought,  such  as  economy,  industry,  hon- 
esty, and  good  morals.  Why,  then,  did  it  come  to  such  an  untimely  end?  I 
asked  this  question  many  times  *  ^  *  The  death  of  Eric  Janson  doubtless 
shortened  its  career.  ^  ''^  ^  He  had  unlimited  control  over  the  temporal  as  well 
as  spiritual  interests  of  the  colony,  and  allowed  no  one  to  question  his  wisdom. 
*It  is  according  to  the  will  of  God'  silenced  all  controversy.  He  believed 
that  he  alone  had  the  whole  truth  and  that  all  people  who  had  not  received 
his  views  were  m  darkness. 

"Such  fanaticism  admits  of  no  justification.  If  it  be  offered  in  extenu- 
ation that  other  Community  founders  have  been  equally  fanatical  and  that 
their  position  of  absolute,  unquestioned  authority  in  matters  temporal  and 
spiritual  naturally  engenders  spiritual  pride  and  fanaticism  in  them,  and  flat- 
tery and  idolatry  in  their  followers,  it  only  follows  that  thus  far  the  position 
is  a  false  one,  and  detrimental  to  the  best  interests  of  all  classes  affected  by  it" 
The  seven   trustees  were  nominally  in  control  of  affairs,  but  an   inter- 


27 

lop<r.  one  Olaf  Janson  (not  related  to  Eric  Janson  the  founder)  got  control. 
While  farming  and  industrial  work  was  bringing  increased  riches,  this  new 
Janson  led  into  foreign  speculation,  investing  in  stock  in  other  enterprises, 
in  a  coal  mine,  real  estate,  bank  stock.  In  one  venture  alone  $34,000  was 
lost,  while  in  many  others  the  losses  were  considerable.  These  things  produced 
discontent,  but  the  members  had  been  taught  to  have  such  unquestioned  faith 
in  their  leaders  they  they  did  not  rebel,  even  when  they  chafed,  at  the  hings 
which  were  being  done.  To  boldly  question  this  Janson's  proceedings  would 
be  to  incur  the  dislike  of  the  community,  which  would  have  regarded  it  as 
sinful. 

Finally  resolutions  were  passed  by  the  Community  at  its  annual  meeting 
rtquiring  more  conservative  management:  but  the  unscrupulous  Jansor..  a -tor 
being  aepcsed  from  office  in  I860,  managed  to  retain  enough  influence  so  that 
he  was  appointed  with  friends  to  act  as  receiver  in  closing  up  thp  affairs  -if  the 
colony  in  1862.  In  this  division  each  adult  male  and  female  received  20 
acres  of  land  or  equivalent  value,  and  the  children  some  property.  Religious 
dissension  had  set  in.  however.  prtf\iou>  to  this,  and  the  colonists,  in  their 
rigorous  lives  and  narrow  beliefs,  had  failed  to  enlist  the  children's  interest, 
with  the  result  that  many  of  them  were  leaving  the  colony. 

Here  is  an  e.xample  of  a  colony  which  was  materially  successful,  which 
triumphed  over  great  odds,  and  which  seemed  to  have  the  foundation  to 
endure.  Yet  the  pendulum  swung  as  far  to  the  right  in  this  case  as  it  did 
to  the  left  in  other  colonies  of  a  secular  nature  —  the  suspicion  which  was 
so  rife  in  some  colonies  that  it  wrecked  them,  was  in  the  instance  of  the 
ijwedes  replaced  by  a  blind  faith  that  left  them  defenseless  when  a  little  or- 
dinary business  caution  might  have  saved  them.  They  viewed  with  ab- 
horreiice  any  questioning  of  the  leaders,  with  the  result  that  \\\r  unscrupulous 
Olaf  Janson  ruined  the  enterprise  established  by  the  devout  and  devoted 
trie  Janson. 

Instead  of  developing  leadership,  the  first  Janson  had  permitted  a  blind 
faith  in  his  ability  to  grow,  so  that  the  colonists  were  little  more  than  child- 
ren in  executive,  legislative,  and  business  affairs.  His  dominating  personality, 
so  essential  at  first,  became  in  time  the  very  thing  which  was  probably  the 
principal  factor  in  causing  the  colony  to  fail. 

The  Community  which  fails  to  develop  a  sturdy  independence  of  thought 
— which  need  not  by  any  means  breed  disharmony — must  depend  on  strong 
icaders:  and  its  chances  for  securing  strong  leaders  devoted  to  the  ideals  of 
the  Community  are  remarkably  small  if  such  leaders  cannot  be  developed 
within    the    Community. 


2S 

A    SUCCESSFUL    SMALL    COLONY 

1856—1879 

That  there  have  been  co-operative  Communities  which  have  not  at- 
attracted  wide  attention,  but  which  have  nevertheless  been  entirely  successful, 
is  unquestioned.  A  letter  from  Mr.  James  Madison  gives  a  brief  synopsis  of 
one.  It  is  perhaps  not  important  as  a  colony,  but  it  is  imp>ortant  as  an  ex- 
ample of  how  success  was  achieved,  and  of  how  it  left  its  lasting  impress  on 
the  people.     This  last  virtue  justifies  giving  space  to  it. 

Mr.  Madison  went  to  teach  school  in  a  little  hamlet,  Germania,  in  Wis- 
consin. "The  little  town  was  unusually  friendly  and  co-op>erative,"  he  writes. 
"I  inquired  into  the  history  of  the  town  and  the  residents  seemed  proud  to 
tell  me  about  it.  I  lived  at  the  residence  of  State  Senator  C.  E.  Pierce.  He 
died  last  year  and  was  the  last  member  of  the  Germania  Company.  This 
company  was  a  co-operative  colony.  In  1857  a  group  of  people  consisting 
of  about  15  families,  headed  by  Benjamin  Hall,  left  Groton,  Massachusetts 
and  established  themselves  at  Germania,  Marquette  County,  Wisconsin.  They 
were  followers  of  Reverend  Miller  and  therefore  Second  Adventists.  The 
land  in  the  vicinity  was  purchased  from  settlers  and  a  large  Community  House 
was  erected,  with  apartments  to  accommodate  the  several  families.  The  din- 
ing room,  kitchen,  and  meeting  rooms  were  common  for  all.  Prayer  meetings 
were  held  every  evening. 

"All  industries  were  run  in  common,  each  one  doing  what  he  could  for  the 
common  weal.  The  industries,  aside  from  the  large  farm  of  about  1200  acres, 
were  a  flour  mill,  cooper  shop,  wagon  and  blacksmith  shop,  harness  and  shoe 
making,  and  general  store. 

"Mr.  Hall  died  in  1879,  and  at  the  time  of  the  death  of  Mrs.  Hall,  the 
mother  of  Senator  Pierce,  the  colony  divided  up  the  property  and  the  Com- 
munity ceased  as  a  Colony.  However,  the  advantages  of  Comunity  life,  co- 
operating in  most  things,  left  its  impress  upon  the  former  members  and  upon 
the  neighbors  as  well. 

"The  reason  for  the  Colony  discontinuing  was  that  the  founders  had  all 
passed  away  and  the  younger  members  had  raised  families  of  their  own.     The 
religious  life  ceased  to  hold  them,  so  they  were  attracted  m  different  directions 
as  their  interests  directed." 

This  brief  description  of  a  small  colony  again  shows  the  necessity  of  a 
wider  urge  than  the  merely  religious  one  of  a  colony  sufficient  unto  itself. 
The  failure  to  hold  the  young  folks — recorded  in  the  history  of  many  colon- 
ies as  a  contributing  factor  toward  its  being  discontinued,  even  though  high- 
ly successful  in  a  material  way — is  of  course  one  which  finds  its  parallel 
to-day  in  the  young  people  leaving  the  farms  and  the  small  towns  for  the 
cities.     But  it  strikingly  shows  the  necessity  of  making  the  community  some- 


29 

Ihing  more  than  a  self-centered  group.  Perhaps  the  remedy  may  he  found 
in  a  num4>er  of  colonies  with  free  interchange  of  colonists,  so  that  the  lure 
of  adventure  may  be  satisfied  without  losing  the  young  people.  Or  there 
may  be  another  solution  in  quite  another  direction,  found  through  inculcating 
certain  principles.  This  seems  only  a  part  of  it.  however,  for  some  colonies 
in  the  past  have  made  careful  and  well-organi/ed  efforts  along  this  line  with 
only  indifferent  success.  It  is  clear  that  here  lies  a  problem  which  has  not 
been  given  the  attention  it  must  have,  and  the  solution  of  h  will  greatly 
lengthen  the  lives  of  Communities. 


THE    ICARIA.yS 

1848—1895 

While  many  successful  Communities  were  established  by  religious  en- 
thusiasts, it  remained  for  the  Icarians,  far  from  being  religious,  to  establish 
settlements  in  which  collective  living  was  well  developed  and  which  survived 
for  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century.  They  seemed  almost  to  prove  that  a 
desire  for  mere  material  welfare  and  the  idealism  that  has  nothing  to  do 
with  religion  would  hold  to  success  as  well  as  other  and  more  religious  ideals. 
^  et  the  Icarians  can  be  said  to  have  proven  quite  conclusively,  on  careful 
analysis,  that  a  devotion  to  collectivism  as  an  end  is  not  enough,  but  that  it 
must  become  an  ideal  viewed  with  almost  religious  fervor  if  it  is  to  succeed 
against  the  selfishness  that  is  certain  to  crop  out  of  collectivism  for  purely 
personal  benefits. 

Ltienne  Cabet  was  the  Icarian  leader.  He  had  thousands  of  followers  on 
both  sides  of  the  Atlantic.  He  was  a  radical  who  held  many  offices  under 
the  government,  though  some  of  them  for  short  times  only  because  of  his 
uncompromising  raaicalism.  He  was  exiled  f.-^om  France  for  five  years  and 
went  to  Belgium,  where  he  was  again  exiled,  going  to  England.  Returning 
to  France,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  cause  of  Communism.  His  teachings 
spread  over  France  and  roused  the  opposition  of  the  government,  the  priest- 
hood, the  police,  the  courts,  and  the  press.  In  1847  there  were  hundreds 
of  thousands  of  followers  of  Cabet  in  France.  Switzerland.  Spain.  Germany, 
England,  and  other  countries.  When  in  1847  he  announced  that  Com- 
munism was  to  be  tried  in  a  Community,  he  received  thousands  of  letters 
of  congratulation,  and  his  plan   was  the   subject   of  wide  discussion. 

Cabet  went  to  England  to  talk  the  matter  over  with  his  friend.  Robert 
Owen.  The  latter  had  planned  for  a  great  colony  in  Texas  years  previous, 
and  it  was  probably  Owen  who  directed  Cabet  lo  Texas.  .At  any  rate,  he 
fell  into  the  hands  of  a  certain  f^eters  Land  Company,  which  induced  him 
to  believe  that  he  was  purchasing  1.000.000  acres.  In  fact,  only  320-acre 
tracts  were  sold,  and  these  were  evidently  government  land  located  for 
the  colonists.     Mor«-o\er,  to  secure  them  there  must  be  certain  improxements 


30 

made  before  July  1,  1848,  and  the  colpnists  were  able  to  make  improve- 
ments on  only  32  half-sections,  a  total  of  about  10,000  acres  instead  of  a 
million.  But,  worst  of  all,  these  were  not  contiguous,  but  alternate,  the 
others  being  retained  by  the  vending  company. 

The  first  contingent  of  Icarians  (the  exact  number  is  not  known)  ar- 
rived in  New  Orleans,  made  their  way  to  Shreveport  by  boat,  and  then 
marched  overland  250  miles  through  forests  and  swamps,  with  only  three 
ox-teams  for  the  distance  of  150  miles.  It  required  two  months  to  get 
to  Icaria,  where  they  were  met  with  the  disappointing  news  regarding  the 
land  conditions.  They  began  planting  crops,  but  were  ignorant  of  farming 
on  unbroken  prairie  sod.  All  took  malaria,  and  four  died.  The  psysician 
went  insane,  and  one  man  was  killed  by  lightning.  Meanwhile  the  second 
advance  guard  of  19  (it  was  to  have  been  1000  or  1500)  arrived  in  the 
Lolony  and  at  once  advised  abandoning  the  place.  This  was  done,  the 
colonists  dividing  into  three  columns  for  greater  safety.  Four  men  died  on 
the  way  out.  When  they  reached  New  Orleans  they  met  400  newly  ar- 
rived Icarians,  fresh  from  France,  and  Cabet  arrived  soon  after.  Scouts 
were  sent  out  for  a  new  location,  and  finally  250  followed  Cabet  to  Nauvoo, 
Illinois,  where  the  Mormons  had  just  moved  out,  leaving  the  town  with  only 
about  4000  inhabitants  and  with  plenty  of  houses  available. 

The  Icarians  prospered  on  the  rented  land  they  cultivated.  1  hev  estab- 
lished shops  and  schools  and  a  newspaper.  Their  numbers  increased  to  500 
by  fresh  arrivals  from  France.  They  had  a  musical  organization  with  50 
instruments. 

Cabet  had  been  made   dictator   for    10  years,  but   in    1850  he   had  sur- 
rendered, voluntarily,  his  powers  to  a  Board  of  six  directors,  called  the  Com- 
mittee of  Gerance,  three  of  whom  were  chosen  every  six  months,  the  term  of 
office  being  a  year.     Cabet  was   elected  president   annually  until    1855.     In 
December  of  that  year  he  proposed  that  the  constitution  be  revised  so  as  to 
permit   a   four   years'   presidency,   with   power   to   name    and    remove   all   the 
subordinate  officers   of  the   Community.      Cabet   said   this  was   necessary   for 
the    good    government   of   Icaria    and   to    restore    the    observation    and   prac- 
tiice  of  its  principles   to  those  who  had  departed   from   them.     The   proposal 
to  revise  prior  to  March,   1857  was  illegal,  but  Cabet  insisted  on  the  change 
being   made    at   once,    regardless    of    this    fact.      A    compromise    was    arrived 
at  whereby  the   regulaHy-elected  president   resigned,  Cabet   taking   his  place. 
For  a   time   Cabet  was   supported  by   a   majority   of   the   directors,   with 
the    General    Assembly,    to    which    the    directors    were    subordinate,    opposed 
to    ham.      At    the    next    election,    the    Board    was    divided,    with    the    Cabet 
party  in  the  minority.     The  latter  party  quit  work,  and  the  two  factions  were- 
divided    throughout    the    colony    in    every    way.      This    deplorable    condition 
continued    for    three    months,    when    the    majority    party    assigned    all    per- 
sons to  certain  tasks,  with  the  "no  work  no  eat"  penalty.     Cabet  and  his 


31 

party  petitioned  the  Slate  Icgijiature  to  repeal  the  act  incorporating  the 
colony,  determined  to  ruin  if  he  could  not  rule.  Formal  charges  were 
made  against  the  deposed  leader,  and  he  was  expelled  from  membership, 
expelled  from  the  community  to  which  he  had  given  so  much  of  his  ability 
and  time.  However.  170  remained  faithful  to  him.  Four  weeks  later 
they   were   in   St.   Louis,   and   a   week   later   Cabet    was   dead. 

The  author  of  ".A  Brief  History  of  icaria"  says:  "The  most  sensible 
members  of  both  parties  recognize  that  there  were  faults  on  both  sides." 
Cabet  had  tried  to  set  aside  the  constitution  which  he  had  himself  prepared 
and  had  tried  to  arrogate  to  himself  dictatorial  powers;  but  he  probably 
had  con\inced   himself  that   it  was   for  the   best   interests  of   Icaria. 


THE  CHELTENHAM  COMMUNITY  —  (1858—1864) 
Those  who  went  with  Cabet  did  not  give  up  their  ideals.  Many  of 
them  found  employment  in  St.  Louis.  They  began  publishing  their  paper 
again  and  kept  up  some  of  the  life  of  the  colony,  esfjccially  the  social  life. 
Cabet  had  tried  to  gel  them  to  give  up  the  use  of  tobacco,  and  now  these 
faithful  ones  did.  They  devoted  Sundays  to  Christian  instruction.  In  1858 
they  purchased  28  acres  of  land  for  $25,000.  about  6  miles  from  St.  Louis. 
There  were  some  buildings  on  the  place.  They  reorganized  their  commun- 
ity life,  especially  the  social  life.  But  again  dissensions  rent  them,  the 
same  problems  of  democratic  or  more  centralized  government  being  the 
bone  of  contention.  Finally  42  left,  and  from  that  time  the  comrriUnit> 
declined  in  every  way,  until  in  1864  there  were  but  8  left,  and  they  had 
soar,    lo    abandon    the    project. 


THE     FIRST     IOWA     COMMUNITY 

The   Nauvoo   majority,    remaining  after   the    first    split,    numbered   about 
250    members.      They    did    not    prosper,    and    in    1857   decided    lo    sell    their 
properly,  or  turn    it   over  lo  creditors,   and   join   the   Iowa   community.     This 
was  finally  accomplished  in   I860.     But  they  were  slill  not  prosperous.    Mem- 
bers were  leaving,  the  land  was  mortgaged,  and  in    1863  they  had  but  thirty 
five  members.     The  region  was  new  and  uninliabited.     Their  mortgage  drew 
10   per   cent    interest.      The    labor   was    hard   and    unremuneralive.      But    the 
Civil  War   enhanced   land   values   and   products.      They   sold   2000   acres    for 
$10,000.  reducing  their  land  debt  lo  $5,500.     .Members  began  to  come  bacl' 
and  an  era  of  prosperity  set   in.     They  put  out  orchards  and  vineyards  ancf 
built   houses.     In    1876  when   Mr.   Hinds   visited  them,  the   Icarians  had  over 
2000   acres   of   fertile    land,    700   of   it   under   cultivation,   some   timber   land, 
much  pasture,  600  sheep.   140  cattle.  5  acres  potatoes.  5  acres  of  sorghum. 
100  acres   of   wheat,  250   acres   of  corn.    1/2   acres   of   strawberries,   besides 
vineyards    and    orchards.      lis    property    was    valued    at    $60,000    with    only 


32 

$4000  of  debt.     Its  membership  had  doubled  in  the  previous  ten  years. 

The  population  at  this  time  was  83,  and  fifty  applications  for  member- 
ship were  pending.  Applicants  were  required  to  pass  a  novitiate  of  six 
months  and  were  admitted  by  a  vote  of  three  fourths  of  the  membership; 
seventeen   members  were  admitted  in    1876. 

The  officers  of  the  association  were  a  Director  of  Agriculture,  Director 
of  Industry,  Director  of  Clothing  and  Lodging,  Secretary,  Treasurer,  and 
President.  AM  were  elected  annually,  subject  to  recall  at  any  time.  TTie 
officers  were  elected  to  execute  the  decisions  of  the  General  Assembly  and 
had  no  other  power.  Marriage  was  obligatory.  Transgressors  were  punished 
by  public  censure.  Women  were  allowed  to  take  part  in  the  deliberations 
of  the  Assembly  and  to  offer  propositions,  but  not  to  vote. 

Trouble  arose  in  1876,  one  party  wishing  to  proceed  cautiously,  the  other 
wishing  to  hasten  improvements,  believing  the  time  had  come  to  do  so.  The 
latter  group  was  made  up  of  new  members  and  young  people  who  had  grown 
up  in  the  colony.  It  became  known  as  the  Young  Party.  The  struggle 
became  bitter,  and  finally  the  split  was  positive.  The  Young  Party  with- 
drew, taking  the  matter  into  the  courts,  which  annulled  the  charter.  Three 
trustees  were  appointed  by  the  court  to  settle  up  affairs,  but  were  replaced 
some  months  later  by  a  committee  selected  by  the  Icarians  themselves. 

In  the  division  of  the  estate,  years  of  service  were  taken  into  considera- 
tion, service  from  the  age  of  sixteen,  with  no  discrimination  between  sexes. 
In  1879  the  division  was  made,  the  Young  Party  taking  the  old  site,  paying 
a  bonus  of  $1500  for  it,  the  elders  moving  to  a  new  one  which  they  called 
the   New   Icarian   Community,   on   the   Nodaway   river. 


THE    YOUNG    PARTY 

was  incorporated  for  $100,000  with  a  charter  permitting  widespread  activi- 
ties. All  property  \vas  donated  by  the  members  to  the  community,  the  di- 
vision having  given  it  to  individuals.  This  agreement  of  donation  provided 
that  it  should  never  be  divided  between  individual  members  under  any  cir- 
cumstances; but,  in  case  of  dissolution  should  go  to  any  number  of  Icarians 
who  might  reorganize  to  carry  out  the  objects  of  the  association.  They  adopt- 
ed an  elaborate  constitution  extending  rights  of  suffrage  to  women,  and  the 
executive  government  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  four  trustees;  but  the  leg- 
islative power  was  held  by  the  General  Assembly  composed  of  all  persons 
over  20.  They  reaffirmed  the  ideals  of  the  community.  A  committee  of 
propaganda  was  appointed  and  the  population  of  the  community  was  nearly 
doubled  in  two  months,  so  that  200  were  expected  to  be  reached  withia 
the  year.  Industries  were  established  and  agricultural  methods  improved. 
There  was   new  zeal   and   enthusiasm. 

But   in    1881    another   split   occurred,    and   another   community  was   at- 
tempted   in    California    at   Cloverdale,   Sonoma    County,    the    founders   being 


35 

Adam  Dehay  and  Pierre  and  Jules  Leroux.  Il  grew  lo  have  54  members, 
885  acres  of  land,  and  $54,000  in  capital.  But  this  fourth  Icarian  commun- 
ity did  not  make  a  defniite  agreement  with  the  parent  ^oung  Icarian  Com- 
munity and  finally  both  the  California  and  the  Iowa  Communities  got  into 
trouble,  and  when  the  estate  was  closed  up  after  the  property  was  sold  at  a 
sacrifice,  the  proceeds  were  divided  among  the  members. 

The  ^'oung  Icarian  Community  soon  broke  up.  though  without  law- 
suits, ond  the  property  was  peaceably  divided  among  the  members,  who  were 
disheartened  by  the  turn  that  the  California  affairs  had  taken. 


THE    NEW    ICARIAN    COMMUNITY 

began  again  to  rebuild  its  community  life,  modeling  it  very  much  after  the 
one  they  had  just  left.  It  was  successful,  though  it  made  no  attempt  to  in- 
crease membership,  and  in  1883  it  had  thirty-four  members,  contented, 
peaceful,  and  harmonious.  The  old  ways  had  proven  best  after  all.  How- 
ever, the  members  were  becoming  old.  and  no  one  of  them  was  willing 
to  take  the  resp>onsibility  of  management;  so  in  1895  the  community  dissolved 
by  consent  of  all.  But  all  of  the  twenty-one  remaining  members  were 
left  in  comfortable  circumstances.  They  reluctantly  left  community  life,  but 
were  unable  to  continue  it  without  new  members,  and  were  unwilling  to  lake 
in  any  new  ones. 

AN  IOWA  HISTORIAN'S  VERSION  OF  ICARIA 

We  are  indebted  to  "The  Palimpsest,"  published  by  the  State  Histor- 
ical Society  of  Iowa,  for  the  following  excerpts  from  an  article  by  Ruth  A. 
Gallaher,   published   in    the    Palimpsest    in    April,    1921. 

"Let  us  visit  Nauvoo  again  six  years  later  and  observe  the  work  of  the 
Communists.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  temple  ruins  some  500  of  the  Icarians 
are  living  and  working,  discussing  their  principles  and  their  daily  tasks 
in  the  French  tongue.  On  the  square  surrounding  the  ruins  of  the  temple, 
even  the  walls  of  which  have  now  been  blown  down,  are  the  community 
buildings  of  the  Icarians.  A  large  two-story  building  provide?  a  combined 
dining  hall  and  assembly  room,  the  upper  floor  being  used  as  apartments. 
A  school  building  in  which  the  boys  and  girls  are  taught  separately  has 
been  constructed  from  the  stones  of  the  temple;  and  a  workshop,  remodeled 
from  the  old  Mormon  arsenal,  is  also  in  use.  Two  infirmaries,  a  pharmacy, 
a  community  kitchen,  a  bakery,  a  laundry,  and  a  library  provide  for  the 
welfare  of  the  community.  Several  hundred  acres  of  land  on  the  out- 
skirts of  Nauvoo  are  farmed  by  the  communists,  while  the  men  who  are  not 
occupied  in  farming  work  in  the  flour  mill,  distillery,  and  saw  mill,  or  ar« 
busy  in  the  workshops  at  tailoring,  shoemaking,  or  other  trades,  each  group 
choosing  its  own  overseer.  The  women,  with  a  few  exceptions,  work  in  iht 
kitchen,   laundry,   or   sewing    rooms. 


34 

"Each  family  has  Its  own  apartment,  for  marriage  and  the  family  rela- 
tion are  recognized  and  fostered.  Suppose  we  observe  the  life  of  a  family- 
for  a  day.  There  is  no  kitchen  in  these  homes,  and  the  mother  does  not 
get  the  breakfast  for  the  family:  instead,  all  go  to  the  community  dining,: 
room,  where  the  meal  for  all  has  been  prepared  by  the  women  assigned' 
to  this  work.  After  breakfast  the  father  goes  to  the  farm,  to  the  mill,  or  to 
the  workshop.  The  mother  perhaps  washes  the  dishes  or  prepares  the- 
vegetables  for  dinner.  The  boys  and  girls  are  sent  to  school,  where  they- 
are  taught  the  usual  branches  and,  in  addition,  the  principles  of  Icaria  — 
all,  of  course,  in  French.  At  noon  they  again  assemble  in  the  dining  hall 
where  a  dinner  of  meat,  vegetables  and  fruit  is  served;  then,  after  a  rest, 
they  return  to  the  farm  or  the  shop  until  the  signal  calls  them  to  supper. 
In  the  evening  there  may  be  a  meeting  to  discuss  and  decide  the  policies  of 
the  community,  or  the  young  people  may  dance.  Possibly  they  may  visit 
together  until  they  are  ready  to  return  to  their  separate  homes.  On  Sun- 
days all  unnecessary  work  is  suspended,  but  there  are  no  religious  services. 
"If  you  are  of  a  legal  turn  of"  mind  and  wish  to  know  the  political 
and  legal  status  of  these  French  settlers,  you  find  that  the  society  has  a  con- 
stitution —  largely  the  plan  of  Cabet  —  which  regulates  their  domestic  af- 
fairs. The  decisions  within  the  community  are  settled  in  the  general  assem- 
bly in  which  all  are  expected  to  be  present,  although  only  men  over  twenty 
years  of  age  may  vote.  The  relation  of  the  community  to  the  State  of  Illi- 
nois is  determined  by  the  act  of  February  1 ,  1 85 1 ,  incorporating  the  'Icarian 
Community.'  Among  the  names  of  the  incorporators  you  may  observe  one 
well-known  in  Iowa  and  Illinois,  A.  Piquenard,  the  architect  of  the  capi- 
tol  buildings  at  Des  Moines  and  Springfield.  Although  jealously  maintain- 
ing their  French  language  and  customs,  the  men  of  the  com.munity  are  for 
the  most  part  naturalized  citizens  of  the  United  States,  and  their  relations 
with   their   American    neighbors    are   usually    friendly. 

"One  faction  represented  by  some ,  fifty-four  voters  supports  Cabet 
in  his  attempt  to  revise  the  'constitution  and  resume  has  former,  position  of 
dictator;  the  other,  with  eighty-one  votes  in  the  assembly,  but  without  much 
power  among  the  administrative  staff,  opposes  this  revision  as  illegal.  .,This 
party  is  known  as  the  "reds."  Supporters  of  Cabet  are  "whites,"  "cabetis^es," 
or  "furets." 

"Fricton  is  increased  by  the  social  groups  which  have  developed  among 
the  women  and  by  the  class  feeling  which  has  appeared  among  the  various 
groups  of  workers.  The  men  who  work  at  a  distance  complain  that  those 
who  work  near  the  dining  hall  are  served  first  and  receive  the  best  food. 
All  these  currents  of  discontent  swell  the  tide  which  seems  about  to  engulf 
the  community.  Famihes  are  divided  and  men  and  women  on  opposite  sides 
no  longer  speak  except  when  work  demands  it.  In  the  dining  room  are  ta- 
bles of  the   'reds'   and   tables   of   'cabetistes.' 


35 

"Unally  ihe  majority  party  obtain  control  of  the  'gcrance'  or  governing 
board  as  well  as  of  the  assembly.  Thereu|X)n  the  'cabelistcs'  quit  work. 
Their  oppKjnents.  taking  as  their  authority  the  words  of  Saint  Paul  —  which 
appeared  in  French,  by  Cabet's  orders,  on  the  walls  of  the  dining  hall  — 
'If  any  will  not  work,  neither  let  him  eat,'  notified  the  insurgents  that  unless 
they  returned  to  work,  food,  clothing,  and  lodging  would  be  refused  them. 
Then,  says  a  French  writer,  began  Homeric  battles  around  the  tables  as  the 
'cabetistes'  attempted  to  force  their  way  into  the  dining  hall,  to  the  great 
damage  of  the  Icarian  table  ware.  Cabet,  watching  from  his  room  on  the 
second  floor,  encourages  his  adherents;  but  they  are  finally  ousted  A  fist 
fight  occurs  when  the  new  officials  attempt  to  secure  the  records  and  keys 
from  the  old  administration,  while  Cabet  looks  on  with  a  smile,  a  situation 
which  reminds  an  Icarian  woman  —  in  the  opposition,  of  course  —  of 
Charles  IX  at  Saint  Bartholomew.  The  climax  o4  absurdity  is  reached 
when  the  new  authorities  attempt  to  remove  two  women  'cabetistes'  who 
teach  in  the  school  for  girls.  One  of  the  teachers  resists  and  is  dragged  out 
*by  the  hair'  crying  for  help,  while  the  terrified  little  girls  scream  and  weep 
and  some  neutral  American  neighbors  watch  the  scene  from  the  vantage, 
point   of   the   temple    ruins. 

"Again  and  again  the  sheriff  is  summoned  to  restore  order.  The  mayor 
of  Nauvoo  urges  a  complete  separation;  and  the  followers  of  Cabet  with- 
drew to  lodgings  outside  Icarian  jurisdiction  and  soon  after  departed  for 
St.   Louis,   leaving   the   'reds*   in   possession   of   Icaria. 

"What  of  the  group  left  behind  at  Nauvoo  >  Suppose  we  visit  them 
some  twenty  years  later.  To  do  this  we  must  travel  to  a  spot  some  four 
miles  east  of  Corning,  Iowa.  Here  is  Icaria,  a  little  hamlet  built  on  a  hill 
sloping  down  to  the  Nodaway  river.  In  the  center  of  a  square  is  the  din- 
ing hall  which  serves  also  as  the  assembly  room.  On  the  sides  of  this 
square  are  rows  of  small  white  cottages  and  the  shops,  laundry,  bakery, 
and  similar  establishments.  Beyond  are  some  log  cabins,  still  used  by  those 
for  whom  frame  cottages  have  not  yet  been  provided.  On  the  outskirts 
are  the  barns,  gardens,  and  orchards,  while  a  magnificent  wood  forms 
an  effective  background  for  the  whole.  One  feature  of  the  usual  Iowa 
village,  however,  is  lacking — no  church  spire  breaks  the  sky-line  above 
Icaria. 

"At  Nauvoo  the  French  had  found  plenty  of  houses,  cultivated  fields, 
and  neighbors  who  were  friendly  as  soon  as  the  suspicion  resulting  from 
the  struggle  with  the  Mormons  was  allayed.  In  Iowa  log  houses,  some 
without  floors  or  windows,  were  their  only  shelter  against  the  biting  cold 
of  winter.  Most  of  their  land  was  unfenced  and  unbroken  prairie,  and 
there  was  not  a  settler  along  the  trail  for  forty  miles  before  thev  reached 
Icaria.     Supplies  had  to  be  hauled  some  hundred  miles  by  team. 

"Al   first  they  endured  real  hardships.     Only  the  sick  had  white  bread, 


36 

sugar,  and  coffee.  Milk,  butter,  corn  bread,  and  bacon  formed  the  menu 
of  the  others.  Little  by  little  conditions  improved.  With  the  outbreak  of 
the  Civil  War,  the  price  of  wool  soared.  The  Icarians  had  a  large  number 
of  sheep  and  wool  was  easy  to  transport  to  a  distant  market.  Troops  pass- 
ing from  the  Missouri  to  the  Des  Moines  river  and  emigrants  westward  bound 
paid  generously  for  supplies.  The  war,  however,  was  not  entirely  an  ad- 
vantage; for  it  is  said  that  every  Icarian  man  qualified  to  enlist  was  en- 
rolled in  the  Union  army. 

"Each  morning  they  assemble  in  the  common  dining  room  for  break- 
fast of  porridge,  bread  and  butter,  and  coffee.  For  dinner  and  supper,  meat, 
vegetables,  marmalade,  cheese,  and  fruit  may  be  served.  The  tables  are 
without  cloth,  and  the  members  drink  from  tin-cups.  Wine  is  produced 
only  in  sufficient  quantities  for  solemn  occasions.  Water  is  the  usual  drink; 
and  even  this  indispensible  commodity  has  to  be  hauled  from  a  distance. 
Many  of  the  men  smoke,  but  tobacco  is  not  furnished  by  the  community  — 
each  smoker  must  raise  and  cure  his  own  supply  in  his  leisure  hours. 

"If  you  knock  at  one  of  the  family  apartments,  you  will  be  received  with 
the  courtesy  which  a  French  man  or  woman  seldom  loses  no  matter  how 
rough  the  surroundings.  Below  are  two  rooms  —  a  living  room  and  a 
bed  room.  Upstairs,  close  under  the  roof  are  two  small  rooms  for  the 
children. 

"In  the  evening  when  the  community  assembles  in  the  dining  hall  for 
discussion  or  to  enjoy  music,  a  program,  or  a  play,  some  idea  of  the  per- 
sonnel at  this  time  may  be  obtained.  Gathered  in  this  rather  bare  room- 
are  some  sixty-seven  persons,  twenty-four  of  whom  are  voters.  Their  dress 
is  plain,  but  neither  peculiar  nor  standardized  *  ^  *  " 

Of  the  schism  which  resulted  in  a  court  decree  in  August,  1878,  dis- 
solving the  community  and  causing  it  to  be  re-incorporated  in  two  distinct 
groups,  the  Iowa  author  has  this  to  say: 

"The  prop)erty  having  been  divided  on  the  basis  of  the  number  of 
members  and  the  contribution  of  each  in  goods  and  work,  the  two  factions 
prepared  to  set  up  housekeeping  anew.  The  radicals,  more  aggressive  than 
their  opponents,  took  out  a  charter  under  the  title,  *La  Communaute  Icar- 
ienne,'  taking  care  to  secure  all  the  rights  which  had  been  held  illegal  under 
the  old  charter,  such  as  establishing  schools  and  manufacturing  establish- 
nrenis.  They  adopted  a  program  which  might  have  been  expressed  by  the 
modern  slogan,  'Watch  us  grow,'  framed  a  new  constitution,  increased  their 
agricultural  and  industrial  activities,  gave  women  a  vote  in  the  assembly, 
and  provided  for  the  admission  of  new  members.  Apparently  they  were 
not  very  discriminating;  for  one  member  wrote  in  disgust  that  they  had 
free-lovers.  Shakers,  nihilists,  anarchists,  socialists,  and  cranks  of  all  kinds — 
the  word  'crank'  being  one  of  the  American  words  adopted  by  the  French^ 
Icarians. 


37 

"The  result  was  membership  indigestion.  »nd  it  soon  became  evident 
"that  the  community  was  losing  members  faster  than  it  gained  them.  Why 
vas  this?  the  leaders  asked  in  dismay.  .Some  said  the  withdrawals  were 
due  to  an  instinct  similar  to  that  which  makes  rats  leave  a  sinking  ship.  This 
diagnosis  was  not  far  wrong.  The  community  was  receiving  many  impro- 
vised Icarians  who  expected  to  live  at  ease  far  from  the  degrading  'wage 
slavery'  of  the  cities;  and  they  were  both  unable  and  unwilling  to  cut  down 
trees,  build  houses,  or  |)lough  the  .soil  which  was  exasperatingly  full  of  rocks. 
Moreover,  their  families  al.so  had  to  be  supjwrted;  and  the  arrival  of  two 
skilled  mechanics  added  to  the  ration  list  nine  additional  persons  who.  a 
French  writer  says,  had  lost  none  of  their  Alsatian  apj^etites  in  the  severe 
climate   of    Iowa. 

"In  the  meantime,  on  th*"  bank  of  the  Nodaway,  the  old  Icarians.  who 
bad  lost  both  the  Icarian  name  and  the  village  of  Icaria.  after  some  hesi- 
tation, had  incorporated  as  *La  Nouvelle  Communaute  Icarienne.'  Thus 
the  old  Icarians  became  the  new  Icarians.  They  selected  a  spot  about  a 
mile  southeast  of  their  old  home  and  created  a  second  Icaria.  Here  they 
lived  in  peace  for  another  twenty  years. 

".About  ten  years  after  the  schism  six  of  the  nine  men  in  the  'Nouvelle 
Communaute  Icarienne'  were  over  sixty-one  years  of  age.  One  of  these, 
A.  .A.  Marchand.  had  been   with  the   first   advance   guard   in    1848. 

".As  the  years  passed,  the  maintenance  of  the  community  grew  more 
and  more  difficult  for  these  old  people,  and  it  became  evident  to  even  its 
most  devoted  adherents  that  its  days  were  numbered.  The  final  act  of 
the  Icarian  community  as  a  whole  was  the  vote  on  the  dissolution  of  the 
society  in  February.  1895.  The  hearts  of  those  who  had  toiled  and  suffered 
in  Texas,  at  Nauvoo,  and  on  the  prairies  of  Iowa  must  have  been  heavy, 
but  the  vote  was  unanimous.  The  execution  of  the  sentence  devolved  upon 
the  court  which  appointed  F.  F.  Bettannier.  one  of  the  members,  receiver. 
The  assets  were  distributed  among  the  members  according  to  their  years 
of  service  in  the  community,  reckoning  from  the  age  of  twenty-one  in  the 
case  of  men  and  eighteen  for  the  women.  Each  orphan  minor  was  given 
$850.  Three  years  later,  on  the  22nd  of  October.  Judge  H.  M.  Towner 
accepted  the  report  of  the  receiver  and  declared  'La  Nouvelle  Communaute 
Icarienne'  legally  at  an  end.  Some  of  the  members  remained  as  honored 
citizens  in  the  vicinity,  but  the  last  branch  of  the  Icarian  tree,  which  was 
to  have  flourished  and  scattered  its  seeds  into  the  world  of  iiiQividualism.  was 
dead." 

Counting  all,  this  was  the  seventh  Icarian  Community,  or  the  fifth  not 
counting  the  Texas  failure  or  the  California  hybrid  (which  permitted  private 
as  well  as  community  property).  It  terminated  47  years  of  propaganda  and 
effort. 

The    Icarian    colonization    experiments    enduring    far    longer    than    any 


38 

other  with  no  dogmatic  basic.  Yet  it  was  marked  by  many  inharmonies. 
The  colonies  founded  on  a  firm  religious  basis  existed  many  years  with 
less  dissension   and   with   greater  prosperity. 

It  does  not  justify,  however,  the  conclusion  that  only  the  colonies  with 
a  religious  basis  can  continue  and  prosper.  Perhaps  it  might  be  that  only 
those  with  a  binding,  cohesive,  central  thought  can  achieve  success,  but  this 
is  also  true  of  business  enterprises,  of  nations,  and  even  of  families.  A 
colony  which  elevated  its  community  life  to  the  same  plane  that  religious 
groups  have  done,  and  which  can  educate  or  induce  its  members  to  purge 
themselves  of  individualism  and  selfishness  as  successfully  as  have  those  col- 
onies based  on  a  religious  concept,  will  undoubtedly  have  an  equal  prospect 
of  success. 

We  may  be  justified  in  the  conclusion  that  it  is  not  the  binding  force  of  a 
religious  ideal,  but  the  binding  force  of  an  uplifting  ideal  which  begets  the 
same-  fervor  and  devotion,  that  brings  success.  Perhaps  a  community  with- 
out religion,  but  with  the  same  honesty,  unselfishness  and  freedom  from  in- 
dividualism would  greatly  transcend  the  successes  of  those  of  religious  basis, 
for  it  might  induce  a  freedom  of  intellect  which  would  furnish  the  urge  for 
greater  success  than  has  ever  before  been  known,  a  cohesive  co-operation 
which  would  not  be  enthralled  by  a  limiting  religion  or  a  dominating  person- 
al influence. 

However,  in  analyzing  the  Icarian  Community,  sight  must  not  be  lost  of 
the  fact  that  the  Genera!  Assembly  was  the  supreme  povver.  It  is  not  difficult 
to  imagine  that  the  people  were  constantly  stirred  by  exhorters,  that  trouble- 
makers brought  their  brews  to  the  pubhc  in  this  way,  and  that  local  poli- 
ticians within  the  group  made  much  hay  while  the  Assembly  sun  shed  its  rays 
upon  them.  A  General  Assembly  is  in  theory  a  gathering  of  ideas  and  a  pre- 
sentation of  them  from  which  the  best  may  be  selected,  but  in  practice  it  is  a 
chaotic  bcdy  of  irresponsible  individuals,  each  trying  to  foist  his  own  idea 
on  the  grcup;  it  is  a  gathering  in  which  passions  rise  and  the  atmosphere  be- 
comes tense,  and  in  which  bickering  and  complaining  take  up  most  of  the 
time.  It  is  an  effort  to  make  calm,  dispassionate,  unprejudiced,  and  intelligent 
legislators  cut  of  the  entire  public,  something  manifestly  impossible.  It  is 
difficult  to  conceive  of  anything  which  could  more  certainly  and  continuously 
distract  attention  from  the  things  which  make  progress  and  center  them  on 
non-essentials  than  the  General  Assembly,  that  misplaced  notion  of  pure  demo- 
cracy. 

We  are  perhaps  not  warranted  in  attributing  the  downfall  of  the  Icarians 
to  this  institution,  but  we  may  well  note  the  significant  fact  that  no  other  group 
suffered  such  constant  irritation  and  so  many  splits.  No  other  institution 
offers  such  a  fertile  field  for  the  airing  of  minor  complaints  which  may  swell 
into  great  ones,  to  create  a  schism  which  is  irreparable,  to  scatter  suspicion 
and  sow  the  seeds  of  dissension.     Never  was  such  an  opportunity  for  the  spy 


39 

and  the  trouble  maker,  plausible  visionaries,  and  covetous  politicians.  If 
Icaria  did  not  suffer  more  from  Us  form  of  government  than  from  all  other 
causes  combined,  we  may  at  least  reasonably  conclude  that  no  small  part  ol 
its  troubles  were  probably  planned  in  private  and  fomented  in  public,  the 
General  Assembly  being  the  means  of  causing  ruptures  which  resulted  serious- 
ly, ultimately  fatally,  for  the  Icarians. 


THE    WOMEN'S    COMMONWEALTH 

1876—1906  (?) 

One  of  the  most  extraordinary  community  enterprises  ever  launched, 
and  one  which  achieved  a  high  degree  of  success  against  seemingly  insuper- 
able obstacles  that  tested  the  perseverence  of  its  members  to  the  utmost,  was 
the  Women's  Commonwealth,  founded  in  Belton,  Texas,  by  Mrs.  Martha  Mc- 
Whirter  about  1876.  Its  value  to  the  general  cause  of  integral  co-operation 
lies  chiefly  in  its  example  of  heroic  endeavor  and  undying  purpose.  It  is 
a  tale  of  persistence  in  the  face  of  persecution.  ^  et  it  was  doomed  to  ulti- 
mate extinction  by  reason  of  the  very  nature  of  its  beliefs.  It  was  celibate, 
and,  though  not  confined  to  women,  yet  it  did  not  attract  men. 

The  ideals  were  purely  religious,  and  the  Community  life  was  forced  for 
reasons  of  expediency  and  economy.  ^  et  it  shows  the  efficiency  of  this  sort 
of  living,  for  the  Community  became,  if  not  wealthy,  at  last  well-to-do. 
The  "Sanctified  Band,"  as  the  members  were  called,  were  devoted  to  prin- 
ciple and  self-sacrificing  to  a  degree  which  makes  them  models  if  not  martyrs 
to  a  belief.  Their  lives  were  threatened,  their  houses  stoned,  and  members 
were  c:agged  from  their  beds  and  cruelly  beaten  by  citizens  of  the  town, 
^et  the  time  came  when  they  became  one  of  the  town's  most  valuable  as- 
sets, and  it  is  probably  true  that  the  only  individuality  Belton,  Texas,  has 
ever  achieved  or  ever  will,  is  due  to  these  women. 

The  women  took  in  washing,  wove  carpets,  turned  their  hands  to  what- 
ever tasks  promised  to  hold  their  little  community  together.  Their  boarding 
house  became  the  best  hotel  in  their  town,  and  achieved  fame  for  many  miles 
around.  They  bought  a  steam  laundry,  bought  and  rented  houses.  Mrs. 
McWhirter  became  a  member  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  the  only  women  ever 
thus  honored.  When  in  I9C8  the  colony  mo\ed  to  Washington,  D.  C,  the 
entire   town   begged   them   to   remain. 

The  founder  of  this  colony  died  .April  20,  1904,  at  the  age  of  77.  The 
colony  endured  for  more  than  40  years,  disbanding  only  as  the  members 
became  superannuated.  It  is  valuable  as  a  demonstration  of  pertinacity  of 
purpose  and  of  the  benefits  which  accrue  to  a  Community  group  of  definite 
purpose,  and  possessed  of  energy  and  ideals. 


40 

TOPOLOBAMPO   COLONY 

1891—1900 

One  of  tne  most  stupendous  experiments  in  Community  Life,  and  one 
which,  Hke  that  of  Robert  Owen  at  New  Harmony,  was  swamped  by  the 
number  of  untried  colonists  who  massed  themselves  in  an  untried  venture, 
was  the  Topolobampo  Colony,  launched  by  Albert  K.  Owen,  no  relative  of 
Robert  Owen,  however  similar  their  experiences  may  have  been  and  however 
disappointing. 

Topolobampo— "Hidden  Water"— was  a  magnificent  site  with  fertile  soH 
and  a  wonderful  climate.  Owen,  in  laying  out  a  railroad  on  the  west  coast 
of  Mexico,  discovered  its  possibilities,  and  for  fourteen  years  laid  plans  for  a 
giant  colonization  project.  He  secured  a  concession  for  300,000  acres  from 
the  Mexican  government,  and  10  million  acres  for  a  railroad,  with  other  con- 
cessions.. 

Owen's  plan  was  to  make  it  a  true  Community  within  the  meaning  of 
this  term  in  this  book,  with  all  productive  wealth  and  property  owned 
by  the  Community  as  a  whole.  To  finance  this  huge  project,  the  Credit 
Foncier  was  organized,  a  company  which  was  to  lay  out  Pacific  City  and  make 
it  a  model  of  the  world's  best  knowledge  in  city-building.  Its  area  was 
equal  to  that  of  New  York,  one  third  being  devoted  to  public  squares.  One 
hundred  thousand  shares  worth  $10  each  were  issued  and  sold  throughout 
the  world. 

Ihe  actual  work  was  to  commence  when  $150,000  had  been  realized 
from  sale  of  stock,  and  one  hundred  pioneers  carefully  selected  were  to  do 
the  first  v.'ork.  But  when  only  $50,000  had  been  raised,  hundreds  of  untit 
peoo'e,  many  of  them  with  families,  rushed  into  the  new  colony,  swamping 
it  by  their  numbers,  bringing  hardships  and  privations,  and  intensifying 
all  of  the  problems  that  similar  Communities  under  the  best  of  circumstances 
must  meet.  Two  thirds  of  the  newcomers  were  women  and  children.  No 
provision  had  been  made  for  them,  and  there  was  not  even  fresh  drinking 
water  immediately  available.  In  February  of  1891,  there  were  330  persons 
in  the  colony,  and  it  was  not  long  until  this  number  was  doubled.  In  1891 
a  call  was  sent  out  urging  all  adults  with  $25  above  expenses  of  reochmg  To- 
polobampo to  go  at  once  to  Topolobampo,  also  to  invest  in  Bonds  in  the 
Mexican  Western  Railroad  Company,  which  was  a  part  of  the  colony  pro- 
ject. 

But  rival  parties  intrigued  against  Owen  with  the  Mexican  government, 
and  efforts  were  made  to  supplant  the  Community  features  with  those  of 
■  capitalism.  Sickness,  too,  was  added  to  the  hardships,  and  discouragement 
-sat  heavily  on  all.  Despite  all  of  these  things,  however,  the  colonials  buiit 
ixw  irrigation  canal  8  miles  long,  100  feet  wide,  and  15  feet  deep,  v/Jth  8 
m:k's  of  laterals.     It  maintained  schools  and  a   kindergarten,  put  up  houses. 


41 

>nd  had  a  la'pc  adobe  bu;IJii<  foi  general  purposes  and  industrial  uses. 
!Moreover.  it  organized  a  social  life.  Finally  changes  were  made  in  '*ic  con- 
cessions which  made  it  imjx)ssiblc  to  continue  the  ex|)eriment.  and  Owen 
IS  reported  to  have  said:  "All  of  my  efforts  have  brought  only  sorrow  upon 
those  I  tried  to  serve  most." 

A  letter  from  L  S.  Witmcr.  now  of  Florida,  but  for  six  months  a  resi- 
dent of  lopolobampo  Colony,  says: 

"A.  K.  Owen  was  the  founder  of  this  colony.  Owen  had  something 
to  do  along  the  west  coast  of  Mexico  in  the  80's.  and  he  discovered  a  fine 
harbor  with  a  fine  country  back  of  it.  He  must  have  been  somewhat  of  a 
progressive  or  a  radical,  or  maybe  he  was  a  socialist.  It  struck  him  that 
here  would  be  a  fine  place  to  start  a  colony  away  from  civilization  and  away 
from   capitalism. 

"Owen  got  busy  right  away  and  got  some  very  important  cor\cessions 
from  the  Mexican  government.  He  soon  got  people  in  the  states  interested 
in  the  country  and  his  scheme  and  they  went  there  and  founded  a  settlement 
along  the  Fuerta  river  30  or  40  miles  back  from  the  coast  and  where  they 
could  get  some  land  to  irrigate  without  much  expense.  When  more  people 
came  in.  they  formed  another  settlement  on  the  coast  at  the  harbor. 

"Owen  and  others  got  some  pretty  big  ideas  in  their  heads  along  about 
this  time.  They  organized  a  stock  company  called  the  Credit  Foncier,  shares 
$10  each.     A  share  constituted  a  membership. 

"Getting  a  big  body  of  land  was  the  first  thing  this  company  had  to  do. 
They  got  some  Kansas  folks  interested  and  they  organized  a  land-holding 
company  called  the  Kansas-Sinoloa  Investment  Company.  Many  thousands 
of  acres  of  land  was  secured.  The  land  was  very  cheap,  from  a  few  cents  to 
a  few  dollars  an  acre.  The  next  move  was  to  construct  an  irrigating  ditch 
and  build  a  railroad.  The  Kansas  company  undertook  the  job  of  digging  the 
•ditch,  which  was  to  cost  around  $100,000.  The  investors  got  script — $2.00 
in  script  for  $1.00  in  cash.  Bonds  or  stock  was  issued  to  build  the  railroad. 
There  were  four  kinds  of  investments— Credit  Foncier  stock,  railroad  bonds, 
script,  and  land  certificates.  The  latter  were  to  pay  for  the  land  held  by  the 
land-holding  company. 

"Work  began  on  the  railroad  at  once,  but  it  was  slow,  very  slow.  The 
Kansas  company  took  hold  of  the  ditch  work  and  put  it  thru  pretty  rapidly. 
When  1  was  there  in  the  winter  of  1891-92.  there  was  a  little  work  done  on 
the  railroad,  but  the  ditch  was  about  half  done.  A  customhouse  was  being 
built  also,  and  there  was  some  surveying  and  clearing  land.  The  garden  at 
the  river  was  enlarged  and  many  vegetables  were  grown.  There  were  men 
at  work  all  of  the  time  fishing  and  gathering  in  clams,  duck  eggs,  turtles,  etc. 

"We  got  $3  a  day  in  credits  when  he  worked  for  the  Credit  Foncier  and 
$3  a  day  in  script  when  he  worked  on  the  ditch.  The  credits  and  the  script 
■would  buy  the  necessary   things  at   the   commissary,   but    luxuries   had   to   be 


42 

paid  for  in  cash.     You  could  get  your  meals  at  the  big  kitchen  and  dining 

room,  payable  in  credits  or  script. 

"People  lived  in  tents  and  temporary  structures.  Many  lived  almost  the 
'same  as  out  of  doors  with  nothing  but  a  covering  overhead.  I  lived  this 
■way  for  months  until  I  caught  the  grip  and  was  down  and  out  for  months. 
There  was  too  much  exposure  and  carelessness  in  the  way  of  living.  At  times 
there  was  much  sickness  on  account  of  it.  Both  the  companies  and  the  in- 
dividuals were  to  blame  for  this. 

"The  men  who  started  this  colony  were  surely  wise  people  and  they  did 
-many  wise  things.  The  location,  the  harbor,  the  back  country,  the  climate,  the 
ditch,  the  railroad,  and  the  purchasing  of  the  land  were  all  good — very  good. 
The  bad  things  were  the  exposure,  the  housing,  the  sickness,  and  the  deaths. 
But  the  companies  were  not  all  to  blame  for  this. 

"The  people  complained  and  growled  and  grumbled  all  of  the  time  and 
this  grew  worse  and  worse  until  there  was  a  split.  After  that  few  people  and 
little  money  came  and  not  much  could  be  done.  Then  the  two  companies  went 
to  fighting  each  other  and  finally  went  to  law.  When  I  wrote  to  them  about 
my  investments,  they  said  I  should  not  look  for  anything.  'It  may  take  it  all 
to  see  the  suit  through,'  they  wrote." 

A  letter  -.rom  r.  IvI.  Campbell,  of  Los  Angeles,  written  in  July,  1924,  says: 

"In  the  year  1886,  a  co-operative  colony  was  organized  to  carry  out  the 
ideals  set  forth  in  a  book  entitled  'Integral  Co-operation'  by  Albert  K.  Owen 
and  published  by  John  W.  Lovell,  of  New  York  City. 

"This  book,  picturing  the  future  of  co-operation,  and  the  possibilities 
of  this  particular  location  in  the  State  of  Sinaloa,  Mexico,  with  its  natural 
deep  water  harbor  on  the  Gulf  of  California,  its  valuable  R.  R.  concession 
from  the  government  of  Mexico,  its  fertile  lands,  a  valuable  option  on  100,- 
000  acres,  and  sundry  other  attractive  features,  caused  a  wide  circulation 
of  the  book.  Integral  Co-operation. 

"From  every  state  in  the  union,  letters  from  intensely  interested  people 
flooded  the  N.  Y.  office  and  a  conference  was  arranged  for  all  who  could  be 
present.  The  movement  was  inaugurated  by  organizing  a  corporation  known 
as  the  'Credit  Foncier'  of  Sinaloa  (meaning  credit  based  on  our  homes). 
The  option  on  the  land  was  satisfactorily  adjusted.  A  favorable  letter  from 
President  Diaz  was  at  hand  regarding  the  R.  R.  concession,  and  propaganda 
in  the  way  of  a  monthly  paper  was  launched. 

"Stock  subscriptions  soon  came  in  to  the  amount  of  $100,000.00,  and 
everything  indicated  an  enthusiastic  and  early  beginning  of  the  colony.  These 
were  busy  days  at  the  colony  headquarters  in  New  York  and  at  the  branch 
office  in  Chicago.  The  enthusiasm  and  interest  of  the  California  members 
exceeded  their  good  judgment.  They  organized  a  party,  chartered  a  sailing 
vessel,  and  made  their  way  to  the  colony  site.  It  was  an  ideal  location,  but 
it  was  absolutely  undeveloped  and  barren  at  the   time.     Their  food  supply 


43 

30011  ran  short,  and  the  radical  change  of  climate  together  with  contagion, 
soon  caused  sickness  and  death  of  a  few  members  of  this  party. 

"No  plans  had  yet  been  made  at  Headquarters  for  taking  care  of  the 
colonists  on  their  arrival,  and  this  move  of  the  California  members  was  un- 
fortunate to  say  the  least.  Exaggerated  reports  were  soon  "broadcasted" 
X)y  the  newspapers  glad  of  an  op|X)rtunity  to  knock  the  so-called  'Socialist 
colony'  which  it  was  not.  Other  unorganized  parties  from  other  states  con- 
tinued to  arrive  at  the  colony  in  spite  of  the  strenuous  efforts  at  Headquar- 
ters to  head  them  off.     This  did  not  improve  matters  at  all. 

"It  was  finally  arranged  to  send  the  first  authorized  party  from  Chicago. 
This  party  of  approximately  25  |)eople  including  some  of  the  directors  and 
the  writer  of  this  narrative,  went  from  Chicago  by  railway  to  Guaymas.  and 
upon  arrival  at  the  colony  set  about  creating  order  out  of  chaotic  condi- 
tions. Our  troubles  continued  for  some  time.  Internal  dissention.  fever,  and 
smallpox  soon  decimated  the  ranks,  although  a  considerable  number  have  made 
their  homes  there  since. 

"One  irrigating  canal  7  miles  long  was  built,  and  to-day  the  land  is  de- 
voted largely  to  the  raising  of  garden  truck  by  private  ownership.  An  im- 
mense production  of  tomatoes  is  shipped  to  the  states  from  that  section. 
Of  course  the  colony  was  a  failure  from  a  number  of  causes.  The  time  was 
not  ripe,  and  human-nature  was  child-like,  as  it  is  to-day.  Altho  a  failure, 
it  was  still  a  wonderful  experience,  and  many  valuable  lessons  for  those 
planning  on  similar  enterprises  can  be  drawn  from  this  unsuccessful  effort 
in  paving  the  way   for  the  Co-operative  Commonwealth. 

"The  thrilling  details  of  this  daring  venture  are  being  written  up  in 
book  form  in  the  hope  of  their  being  published,  probably  by  the  United 
Co-operative  Industries,  and  those  of  the  survivors  who  have  intimate  knowl- 
edge of  this  enterprise  are  invited  to  communicate  with  Frank  M.  Campbell, 
Lnited  Co-operative  Industries.   I  1381   Belvedere  St.,  Los  Angeles." 

.Accounts  varied  so  much,  according  to  Hinds,  that  it  was  impossible  for 
him  to  decide  what  conditions  actually  were.  He  shrewdly  says-  "Im  large 
colonies  there  are  generally  a  few  (sometimes  many)  malcontents,  who  can 
see  little  but  evil  in  the  circumstances  surrounding  them,  while  to  others  all 
is  (rose-colored).  .Most  accounts,  for  instance,  of  Topolobampo  make  it  the 
abode  of  calamity  and  desolation,  especially  during  the  last  year:,  but  other 
accounts  represent  that  colony  life,  even  in  that  remote  region  and  under  its 
most  trying  conditions,  still  had  some  attractions  and  compensations,  and  I 
have  no  doubt  that  many  who  spent  their  all  to  engage  in  the  Topolobampo 
experiment  will  be  ready  to  take  part  in  another  one  should  the  opjwrtunity 
offer  under  conditions  apparently  more  promising  of  success." 

How  correct  Mr.  Hinds  was  in  his  surmise  is  evidenced  by  the  fact 
that  at  l«ast  two  members  of  the  Llano  Co-operative  Colony  lived  in  To|x>- 
lobampo  and  their  recollections  of  it  are  far  from  bitter. 


^4 

In  summing  up  this  lamentable  experiment,  which  never  had  a  fair  op- 
portunity, a  writer  enumerates,  as  rep>ortecl  by  Hinds,  the  conditions  neces- 
sary to  success: 

1.  Previous  mutual  acquaintance  of  the  majority  of  the  persons  designing 
'to  become  members; 

2.  Religious  unity  and  earnestness; 

3.  A  capable  leader  who  shall  be  unanimously  accepted  as  such  and  obey- 
ed; 

4.  Some   actual   training  in   giving  and   receiving  personal   criticism; 

5.  A  sober  calculation  as  to  the  means  of  earning  a  livihood.  This 
should  mclude  care  in  the  selection  of  a   location. 

^  et  not  all  of  these  are  absolutely  essential,  however  desirable  they  may 
be.  Strong  leadership  is  necessary  at  the  inception,  but  it  may  eventually  be- 
come a  weakness  rather  than  a  source  of  strength,  as  many  examples  show. 
Previous  acquaintance  is  not  necessary,  nor  is  it  any  guarantee  that  such 
previously  acquainted  individuals  will  retain  their  friendships  when  put  to  the 
test  of  colony  conditions.  Earnestness  of  purpose  is  imperative  to  success, 
just  as  it  is  to  the  success  of  any  undertaking;  but  it  remains  to  be  proven  that 
religious  unity  is  essential;  if  there  be  no  conflicting  forms  of  militant  reli- 
gion, mere  religious  tolerance  is  sufficient,  if  we  are  to  believe  the  examples 
given  of  communities  which  have  lived  for  many  years  with  religious  toler- 
ance. A  sober  calculation  as  to  the  means  of  earning  a  livlihood  and  the 
selection  of  a  location  are  surely  necessary.  Actual  training  in  giving  and  re- 
ceiving mutual  criticism  is  valuable;  mutual  criticism  is  inevitable,  and  those 
who  cannot  bear  it  will   not  remain  with  any  Community. 


THE    RUSKIN    COMMONWEALTH 

1894-1901 

J.  A.  Wayland,  who  became  well  known  as  the  editor  and  owner  of  the 
Appeal  to  Reason,  the  fighting  Socialist  paper,  founded  the  Ruskin  Colony 
in  1894.  He  was  publisher  of  the  Coming  Nation,  and  agreed  with  his 
readers  that  if  the  circulation  were  pushed  to  100,000  he  would  use  $23,- 
000  to  purchase  land  on  which  a  colony  should  be  established  to  demon- 
strate the  theories  espoused  by  the  paper.  Charter  memberships  were  $500. 
The  first  location  was  found  unsuited  for  the  purpose,  but  eventually  a  good 
location  was  secured. 

The  chief  industry  was  publishing  the  Coming  Nation,  and  the  printery 
was  a  good  one.  At  one  time  a  publisher  of  a  string  of  lator  papers  made 
arrangements  to  have  them  printed  at  the  colony  printing  establishment. 
However,  discords  early  set  in,  and  Wayland  withdrew  at  the  end  of  a  year, 
selling  his  publication  to  the  colony.  Steady  progress  was  made  by  the  col- 
ony, however,  until  in    1899.     On  July  26  of   that  year  the  entire  property 


45. 
was  disposed  of  at  forced  sale.  It  consisted  of  1700  acres  of  land,  many 
buildings.  200  acres  of  growing  crops.  184  head  ol  live  stock,  jwultry.  mer- 
chandise,  machinery,   and   tools. 

The  trouble  was  caused  by  the  rule-or-ruin  methods  of  self-seekers,  as 
has  been  the  case  in  other  communities  not  under  the  leadership  of  a  firn* 
character  and  one  in  whom  all  members  have  confidence.  Ruskin  was  pure- 
ly secular,  and  there  was  none  of  the  cohesive  force  given  by  a  religious 
ideal  upon  which  all  agree.  It  seems  to  have  tried  to  combine  to  some  ex- 
tent the  Community  principles  with  some  individual  undertakings. 

Notwithstanding  that  the  rule-or-ruin  members  resorted  to  injunct'ons 
and  caused  the  premature  failure  of  the  colony,  its  assets  were  more  than 
its  liabilities,  even  in  the  face  of  a  forced  sale,  and  there  was  a  surplus  to 
divide  among  members. 

About  250  Ruskin  members  went  to  Duke,  Georgia,  after  the  failure  of 
the  Tennessee  effort,  and  made  another  attempt.  A  special  train  of  I  I  cars 
was  chartered  at  a  cost  of  $3500,  and  the  household  goods  and  other  be- 
longings, including  tools,  type,  the  press  of  the  Coming  Nation,  and  other 
equipment  were  shipped.  They  were  joined  by  35  other  members,  and  the 
new  Ruskin  Commonwealth,  established  by  the  Co-operative  Settlers'  Asso- 
ciation, had  800  acres  of  land,  an  abundance  of  timber,  more  than  50  houses, 
a  postoffice.  store,  railroad  station,  and  siding.  The  publication  of  the  Com- 
ing Nation  was  resumed  and  various  business  enterprises  started,  among  them 
being  the  making  of  shingles,  brooms,  cereal  coffee,  leather  suspenders. 
Fruit-growing  and  poultry-raising  were  established.  Social  life  flourished  too» 
and  there  was  a  Woman's  Club,  a  lyceum.  theatrical  entertainments,  bras> 
band,   and   other   musical    organizations. 

However,  the  same  dissension  entered  and  the  outcome  was  the  same. 
Some  left  for  the  Fairhope  Single-Tax  Colony,  some  went  back  to  Tennessee. 
In  1901  a  final  disposition  of  the  colony's  effects  was  made,  and  the  chap>- 
ter  was  closed. 

The  weakness  of  both  the  Ruskin  exF>erimcnts  seems  to  have  been  a  lack 
of  a  common  community  interest  entirely  divorced  from  selfish  interests^ 
and  the  lack  of  calm  and  dispassionate  leadership.  Its  imjwrtance  was  not 
great,  but  J.  A.  Wawland  was  forever  convinced  that  Community  life  is  im- 
{K)ssible  except  in  religious  colonies;  and  the  Appeal  to  Reason  frequently 
jjrinted  an  article  warning  against  such  enterprises.  This  was  to  do  much 
toward  deterring  p>eople  from  joiining  the  Llano  Co-operative  Colony  when  the 
latter  was  formed  in  1914.  Great  stress  was  laid  on  the  purely  material 
features  of  colony  life  and  the  individual  benefits  to  be  enjoyed.  This  made 
an  appeal  to  selfishness  which  is  the  common  weakness  of  secular  commun- 
ities. Religious  colonies  usually  escape  this;  for  their  communal  living 
is  filled  with  a  burning  enthusuism  for  a  principle  for  which  they  are  ready 
to  sacrifice  all.     Secular  colonies  are   rarely  animated  by  such  high  ideals. 


46 

THE    CHRISTIAN    COMMONWEALTH 

1896—1900 

Not  all  religious  colonies  succeed,  however.  Christian  Commonwealth  of 
Muscogee  County,  Georgia  was  launched  in  1896  by  Rev.  Ralph  Albertson,. 
with  45  persons  as  the  nucleus.  During  its  existence  500  persons  were  con- 
nected with  it  first  and  last.  It  printed  a  pajjer  which  attained  a  circulation 
of  2000,  had  a  library  of  1400  volumes;  it  had  a  sawmill,  shops,  cotton 
mill,  printing  establishment,  laundry,  and  school  house,  and  all  rough  buildings. 
There  was  night  school  three  evenings  a  week  for  elders,  and  a  kindergarten 
for  infants.  Women  had  equal  rights  with  men,  and  the  majority  ruled  in 
the  colony. 

The  chief  weakness  of  this  colony — and  one  which  merits  its  presenta- 
tion in  the  pages  of  this  little  volume  —  was  the  child-like  determination  to 
open  the  doors  to  ?.ll  comers.  The  kind-hearted  founders  objected  especially  to 
excluding  the  weak  and  needy,  and  ignored  all  the  usual  requirements  in  re- 
gard to  age,  health,  and  membership  fees.  This  was  a  splendid  idealism,  but 
it  vf  ^)  not  likely  to  bring  in  substantial  materia!  on  which  to  build  a  colony, 
and  neither  was  it  Likely  to  sift  out  those  who  were  unable  to  comprehend 
the  high  principlefs  of  the  leaders. 

Though  the  reasons  for  failure  given  by  Rev.  Albertson  were  a  $2000 
mortgage  and  poor  land  with  crop  failures,  Hinds  sums  it  up  quite  differently; 
and  his  analysis  is  that  "it  still  would  not  have  been  in  existence  to-day  unless 
radical  changes  had  taken  place  in  its  regulations  regarding  the  admission  of 
members.  No  Community  that  has  thrown  wide  open  its  doors  to  all  appli- 
cants has  long  survived.  No  wonder  it  had  to  expel  one  member  for  immoral 
tendencies,  one  for  incurable  laziness,  and  one  for  making  false  statements 
about  his  family!  No  wonder  there  came  in  those  who  kept  away  from  re- 
ligious meetings,  mocked  at  prayer,  trampled  on  their  vows,  set  aside  their 
contracts,  and  who  were  determined  to  rule  or  ruin  and  finally,  after  making 
up  their  minds  to  leave  the  colony,  applied  for  a  receivership  in  order  to 
break  it  up  and  thereby  secure  a  part  of  the  common  property!  Its  founders 
and  leaders  may  not  have  banked  too  largely  on  Christ's  love,  but  He  was 
remarkable  also  for  his  prudence  and  foresight  and  cautioned  his  disciples 
against  giving  'that  which  is  holy  unto  dogs'  and  casting  'pearls  before 
swine.'  " 

The  achievements  of  this  little  group  were  not  momentous,  but  the  lesson 
to  be  learned  from  allowing  a  love  for  humanity  to  mistakenly  admit  those 
who  are  manifestly  unfit  for  Community  life  is  too  plain  to  be  overlooked. 
Things  which  are  given  away  too  freely  are  likely  to  be  lightly  valued,  and 
the  colony  which  makes  too  easy  the  terms  of  admittance  into  full  membership 
is  "casting  its  pearls  before  swine." 


47 

THE    BROTHERHOOD    CO-OPERATIVE 
COMMUNITY    OE    EQUALITY 

1898—1906 

This  rather  long  title  is  usually  cut  down  to  'Equality,  which  was  organ- 
ized in  1895  by  Socialists  and  officials  of  the  Socialist  organization,  it  found 
favor  with  the  delegates  to  a  Socialist  convention  in  1898.  and  in  that  year 
a  call  was  sent  out  to  Socialists  to  go  to  Puget  Sound.  The  organization  had 
a  membership  of  3.000  paying  ten  cents  a  month 

in  October  of  1900  the  colony  had  staled  the  population  to  be  120;  in 
1898  it  had  been  given  at  260  to  300.  One  authority  claims  that  300  F>€rsons 
left  during  the  first  18  months  for  various  reasons.  This  is  believable: 
many  who  go  into  new  enterprises,  whether  Community  or  otherwise,  are 
very  unfit  for  the  conditions  they  must  meet.  Those  who  take  up  govern- 
ment land  rarely  carry  their  holdings  thru  to  the  time  when  they  really  pro- 
duce. Newly  opened  districts  change  jxipulations  frequently.  Commun- 
ities have  no  monopoly  on  this.  It  is  only  the  common  interest  that  makes 
this  turn-over  in  population  seem  to  be  more  important  than  in  other  cases, 
and  perhaps  it  is  more  important. 

Equality  was  a  real  Community  in  the  ownership  of  property,  and  in 
sharing  earnings  all  over   18  were  on  equality. 

In  1900  the  colony  had  620  acres  of  land,  with  35  ol  them  under  culti- 
vation. In  1901  it  showed  resources  of  $75,000;  its  liabilities  were  only 
$1,000. 

Causes  of  disintegration  and  final  failure  are  attributed  by  Hinds  to 
various  incidents.  There  were  no  recognized  leaders,  though  J.  E.  Pelton 
was  the  chief  one  .until  his  death.  There  were  many  disputes,  and  in  1904 
there  was  a  disastrous  fire  which  cost  the  colony  $8,000.  The  General  .As- 
sembly seems  to  hjive  been  the  controlling  factor,  and  to  have  been  the  same 
costly  institution  there  that  it  was  in  the  other  colonies.  So  bad  did  condi- 
tions become,  according  to  an  article  in  SUiNSET  in  1923,  that  fist-fights 
were  common  in  the  Assembly,  and  it  was  claimed  by  some  that  buildings 
were  burned  by  contending  factions.  A  letter  received  some  years  ago  by 
the  compiler  of  this  little  volume  from  a  former  member  of  Equality  stated 
that  "we  burned  the  barn."  An  effort  was  made  to  get  more  definite  informa- 
tion; but  the  reply  to  the  letter  sent  out  brought  the  statement  from  a  younger 
relative  that  the  old  colonist  had  become  irresponsible  in  his  old  age  and  that 
there  was  no  truth  in  his  assertion.  The  Llano  Colony  had  several  former 
members  of  Equality  at  one  time.  .All  were  much  in  evidence  at  the  Llano 
General  Assembly,  and  the  threat  was  made  that  some  might  take  such  violent 
measures  as  were  taken  in  Equality,  though  this  assertion  was  not  traced  to 
them. 


48 

Several  accounts  of  the  final  failure  of  the  Colony  seem  to  lay  much  oF 
this  to  Alexander  Horr,  who  came  to  Equality  in  1904.  Horr  induced  about 
forty  of  the  remaining  colonists,  virtually  all  of  them,  to  adopt  the  plans  of 
Theodore  Hertzka,  by  whach  they  divided  into  groups.  This  plan  is  knowa 
as  "free  competition,"  and  when  the  compiler  of  this  book  met  Horr  in  San- 
Francisco  in  1922,  just  before  Horr  was  nominated  as  candidate  for  governor 
on  the  Socialist  party  ticket,  the  latter  was  still  advocating  the  Hertzka  plans 
and  was  much  opposed  to  Community  life.  Briefly,  this  plan  is  for  the  colony 
to  advance  funds  to  groups  to  engage  in  industry.  Free  competition  is  guar~ 
anteed,  as  the  workers  can  join  whatever  groups  suit  them.  But  as  profits 
are  divided  within  the  groups,  the  desire  will  be  to  join  those  making  the 
greatest  profits,  so  that,  as  in  ordinary  capitalistic  competitive  society,  the  ten- 
dency will  be  toward  an  equality.  Horr  and  two  other  trustees  pushed  through 
a  scheme  of  this  kind,  notwithstanding  some  opposition,  and  leased  to  them- 
selves 160  acres  of  colony  land  for  99  years.  The  majority  obtained  an  in- 
junction against  Horr  and  finally  a  receiver  was  appointed  in  March,   1916. 

A   second  colony  had   previously  been   established   at   Edison   as   a   part 
of  the  chain  of  colonies  which  was  to  be  formed,  but  it  did  not  survive  long. 
Wm.  Lieseke  writes   from  Langley,  Washington   regarding  Equality   Col- 
ony, on  April   10,   1924,  as  follows: 

"  *  'i^  *  I  vvill  say  a  big  part  of  the  members  of  the  colony  when  I  was 
there  didn't  claim  to  be  Socialists  and  surely  didn't  prove  it.  About  140  peo- 
ple were  in  the  colony  when  I  was  and,  coming  and  going,  we  held  our  own. 
I  worked  three  months  in  the  cuisine  as  superintendent,  and  all  the  time 
I  worked  in  that  position  I  came  in  contact  with  all  of  the  members  daily.  1 
could  have  picked  out  50  good  co-operators  of  the  bunch,  but  we  had  no 
leader  and  had  a  strong  following  of  the  trouble-makers,  and  I  must  say  here 
that  he  was  much  to  blame  for  much  of  the  trouble  we  had  when  I  was 
there,  and  I  suppose  he  kept  on  after  we  left.  I  will  not  go  into  details;  leV 
us  forget  it.  *  *  ^  Had  a  letter  from  X — still  knocking  Llano.  Told  me  not 
to  send  money  there,  as  it  is  a  lost  proposition.  Too  bad,  but  then  we  can't 
blame   him;    he  doesn't   know   any   better." 

Mr.  Lieseke's  observations  regarding  a  certain  member  who  continued 
to  make  trouble,  and  who,  to  the  knowledge  of  the  writer,  was  in  at  least 
two  colonies  subsequently,  seems  to  confirm  the  theory  that  there  is  a  type 
of  people  who  cannot  refrain  from  making  trouble,  and  who  seem  to  seek 
trouble.  They  are  well  characterized  by  G.  J.  Holyoake  in  commenting  on 
the  struggles  of  the  Rochdale  Co-operators,  given  on  another  page  of  this 
book. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  understand  that  the  pioneers  of  Equality,  those  with 
ideals  and  vision  and  honest  intentions  and  some  degree  of  practicality  were 
greatly  handicapped  by  those  who  were  in  the  colony  purely  for  personal 
gain.     It  is  this  fact  which  has  given  religious  colonies  success,  where  failure 


49- 
has  allcnded  the  efforts  o\  secular  organizations.  Lacking  a  strong  leader, 
and  loaded  down  with  persons  who  sought  only  advantages  for  themselves, 
with  the  good  of  the  community  second  in  their  thoughts,  if  indeed  it  occu- 
pied any  place  whatsoe\er,  it  re<)uired  no  court  decree  to  bring  about  fail- 
ure. The  death  ol  llir  colony  was  dntrrd  by  thr  vrlfivh  .iiiiludr  (if  thr  rn.iior- 
ily  members. 

Worth  Wilson  Caldwell,  wiitiiig  in  the  HrJIinvhiiin  ^uiulav  Kcvciljc  in 
October.  1922.  says:  "  '^  '''  "^  The  facts  prove  that  they  (the  t(|uality  Col- 
ony) existed  for  approximately  one  third  of  what  it  cost  the  people  in  the 
reighboring  towns  to  survi\p.  1  his  was  due,  of  course,  to  the  fact  that  ev- 
erything they  bought  was  raw  materials  and  was  made  up  free  of  charge  by 
the  company  men  ^'"  *  ■^.  According  to  survivors  of  this  seemingly  happy 
arrangement,  many  people  came  without  any  real  intention  of  subscribing  to 
the  principles  of  the  colony  and  lived  in  their  midst  until  they  stocked  up  on 
r  large  quantity  of  extra  clothing  and  so  on  and  then  moved  away."  This 
fits  in  very  well  with  what  Mr.  Lieseke  writes,  tliough  many  accounts  writtea 
of  Equality  fail  to  give  all  the  facts,  or  else  carry  many  unwarranted  as- 
sertions, according  to  Mr.  Lieseke. 

In  summing  up  the  failure  of  Equality  Colony,  the  shrewd  and  kindly 
.Mr.  Hinds  says:  "And  thus  practically  ended  in  strife  the  experiment  that 
excited  at  first  so  much  interest  and  which  it  was  hoped  would  lead  to  sucK 
large  results.  Its  experience  emphasizes  anew  the  lesson  taught  by  the  scores 
of  Owenite  and  Fourierite  experiments  in  the  first  half  of  the  last  century  : 
To  rear  a  durable  structure  of  any  sort  there  must  be  either  selected  ma- 
terial or  arrangements  for  changing  its  character  and  eliminating  the  worth- 
less. This  is  especially  true  of  all  structures  in  which  human  beings  are  the 
material.  If  such  selected  material  is  not  obtainable,  and  there  is  no  .>uitab!e 
machinery  for  changing  the  character  of  the  material  offered.  th?n  it  scorns 
the  acme  of  unwisdom  to  bring  men.  women,  and  children  into  the  close  re- 
lations of  colony  life.  In  accounting  for  the  unfortunate  results  at  Equality. 
it  world  be  difficult  to  improve  upon  the  statement  made  by  onv.*  of  its 
le^ideiit-"  111  tl.c  colony's  jjaper:  "The  underlying  cause  of  our  troubles  ha« 
be«n  the  indisputable  fact  that  as  Socialists  most  of  us  were  pulled  before  we 
were  ripe.  We  thought  we  had  reduced  Socialism  to  a  science  before  we  had 
mastered  the  alphabet  thereof.  And,  furthermore,  we  did  not  analyze  our  own 
natures  to  discover  how  much  of  the  old  competitive,  murderous,  in'^ividual- 
istic  spile  yet  linge.ed  therein." 


50 

COSME    COLONY,    Paraguay,    S.    A. 

1893—1904 

We  are  indebted  to  Mr.  Fred  Harris  of  Brisbane  for  clippings  from 
the  "Standard"  of  that  city  giving  a  lecture  by  John  Lane,  brother  of 
William  Lane,  concerning  the  New  Australian  and  Cosme  efforts.  Mr.  Lane 
gave  this  lecture  in  May,   1924,  excerpts  from  which  are  given  here: 

I  should  like  you  to  get  in  true  vision  William  Lane's  idea  of  the  life 
he  was  striving  for,  of  the  right-living  he  so  earnestly  advocated,  of  thei 
underlymg  religion  which  was  the  basis  of  all  his  teachings,  whether  applied 
to  social  reform  in  Queensland  or  to  social  living  in  Paraguay.  I  give  you 
his  own  words:  — 

"God  speaks  in  the  springing  of  the  corn,  in  the  march  of  the  stars,  in 
the  movements  of  peoples,  and  in  the  wondrous  justice  which  underlies  the 
pains  and  pleasures  of  our  lives.  Never  yet  has  chaos  been;  never  yet  dis- 
order. Never  has  the  wrong  really  triumphed;  never  in  all  the  ages  has  the^ 
right  really  gone  down." 

f^     '^    't-    H-    V' 

"We  Germanic  peoples  come  into  history  as  Communists.  From  our 
communal  villages  we  drew  the  strength  which  broke  Rome  down,  the 
energy  which  even  yet  lets  us  live.  Not  where  men  beg  landless  for  work  in 
electric-lighted  factories,  not  where  women,  poverty- fearing  amid  heaps  of 
riches,  shrink  from  child-bearing,  was  the  courage  born  that  still  keeps  the 
drum-tap  beating  with  the  sun.  It  was  from  wife-kept  homes  in  free  vil- 
lages, where  the  land  was  common  and  all  were  equal,  and  only  the  slug- 
gard and  the  criminal  were  outcast,  where  every  man  had  friends  to  stand 
by  him  in  his  need." 

William  Lane  got  into  close  personal  touch  with  the  bushworkers  during 
the  shearers'  strike  of  '91.     Here  is  his  message  to  them,  written  in   1892:  — 

"For  this  to  me  is  what  New  Australia  means;  to  the  landless,  the  home- 
less, the  wifeless,  the  childless;  to  those  whose  hearts  are  sick  and  sore;  to- 
those  who  long  to  be  manly,  to  be  true,  to  be  what  men  should  be: 

"Come  out  from  this  hateful  life,  the  life  that  is  full  of  unspoken 
misery,  of  heart-sickening  longing,  of  evil  habits  growing  with  the  years,  of 
sin   and  slavery  that   lead  to   nothing   but  death. 

"Come  together  in  all  unselfishness  to  trust  each  other  and  to  be  free. 
To  live  simply,  to  work  hardly,  to  win,  not  the  gold  that  poisons,  but  the 
home  that  saves!  To  be  true  husband  to  one  woman,  to  be  happy  father 
of  healthy  children,  to  be  true  friend  of  every  mate  who  grips  hands  for  the 
well-being  of  all! 

"Come  and  work  as  free  men  for  eo.ch  other,  to  labor  on  the  common 
land   for  the  common   good,  and   not   for  self   alone,  or  the   selfish   gre.ed  oE 


5r 

another! " 

In    1892  William  Lane  left   the  "Worker."  and  devoted   some  months  \0: 
organizing   for  the   proposed   co-operative   colony.      Prospectors   v^ere   sent   to- 
South    America    (Australian    governments    in    those    day    were    bitterly    anti- 
Socialistic),  and  succeeded  in  obtaining  a   large  grant  of  land   under   settle- 
ment conditions  in  Paraguay. 

In  July.  1893,  the  new  .Australia  pioneers  set  sail  for  F'araguay. 
But,  from  the  first,  there  was  no  real  unity  among  the  colonists:  and 
when,  after  some  expulsions  and  many  secessions,  a  second  party  arrived 
from  .Australia  only  to  intensify  the  differences,  it  was  clear  that  to  build 
up  a  communal  colony  with  the  material  in  New  Australia  was  utterly  impos- 
sible. 

In  May.  1894.  58  people  (39  of  them  men.  and  mostly  bushmen)  under 
the  leadership  of  William  Lane,  withdrew  from  New  Australia  to  begin  again, 
the   task  of  building  up  a  communal   settlement. 

Mr.  Gilmore  writes:  "After  William  Lane  left,  first  one  person  was 
chairman,  then  another;  one  arrangement  followed  another;  troubles  and 
dissensions  grew;  parties  formed  '^  '^  '^  each  one  petitioning  the  Govern- 
ment against  the  other,  till  at  last  that  most  long-suffering  of  bodies,  the  Par- 
aguayan Government,  interfered  and  sent  out  an  official  to  fix  things  up 
and  report.  The  result  was.  that  the  colony  ceased,  in  the  original  sense 
of  the  word,  to  be  a  colony,  the  Government  giving  each  settler  so  many  acres 
of  land  for  his  individual  use.  Tlie  Paraguayan  and  the  New  .Australian 
live  side  by  side,  equal  under  the  law,  and  equal  socially." 

On   leaving   New   Australia,   we   camped    near   a    river    ford   called   Paso 

CQSME     COLONY 

Cosme,  while  our  agents  tried  to  secure  a  grant  of  land  for  us  from  the  Gov- 
ernment. But  a  revolution  occurred,  making  an  immediate  grant  impossible, 
and   forcing  us,  poor  though  we  were,  to  buy  privately.  ^ 

We  secured  a  block  of  13.000  acres  in  the  fork  of  two  rivers,  near  Caazapa. 
The  price.  £400;  one  quarter  cash,  and  payment  of  balance  within  three 
years.  Later  on  the  new  Government  paid  us  back  our  £100  deposit  and 
took  up  the  other  payments.  We  always  found  the  Paraguayan  Government 
most  liberal  and  helpful  in  their  dealings  with  us. 

Cosme  started  with  a  capita!  of  less  than  £400.  mainly  provided  by 
English  and  Australian  friends,  and  by  the  sale  of  personal  effects  contrib- 
uted by  members.  The  women  gave  their  jewelry— even  their  wedding  rings, 
which  last,  however,  was  not  sold,  but  given  back  to  the  owners.  A  soak- 
ing rain  was  falling  on  that  bleak  day  in  July.  1894.  when  the  hired  native 
carellas  left  us  and  our  belongings  in  the  long  wet  grass  at  the  edge  of 
that  Paraguayan  monte.  which  we  were  to  call  home.  But.  though  it  soaked 
our  garments,  the  ram  could  not  damp  our  spirits,  for  dissensions  were  left 
behind     and   we    were   on    our   own    land.     Before    nightfall,    all    were    under 


52 

shelter  of  some  sort;    tents,  with  grass-thatched   flys,   huts   of  saphngs,   withi 
grass  roof  and  sides. 

The  machete  men  first  cleared  the  undergrowth.  The  axemen  felled  and' 
cut  up  the  timber.  Then  came  the  stackers  and  burners.  The  planting  gang; 
followed  on  the  heels  of  the  burners,  with  hoe  and  seed  maize  over  the  hot^ 
ash-covered  ground,  till  in  a  few  weeks  the  extending  clearing  smiled  its 
green  promise  of  harvest.  As  the  day  grew  longer  our  scanty  stores  grew 
shorter,  till  our  cash  was  spent,  our  food  gone,  and  another  month  to  go 
before  our  earliest  maize  would  be  ripe  for  harvest.  A  Caazapa  storekeeper 
sold  us  a  ton  of  beans  on  credit,  but  during  the  last  fortnight  we  had  no 
salt  to  go  with  them.  Then  the  maize  crop  came  in,  and  mandioca,  sweet 
potatoes,  and  more  slowly  maturing  crops  in  swift  succession,  and  we  feasted 
and  enjoyed  those  simple  foods  most  ambrosially  flavored  by  hard  work  and 
much   abstinence. 

As  the  weeks  passed  our  Australians  tightened  their  belts  and  swung 
their  axes.  They  grew  leaner  and  browner  as  summer  came  on,  but  insisted 
on  the  small  store  of  finer  foods  being  shared  by  women  and  children  only. 
They  were  living  Sir  Philip  Sidneys.  I  know,  for  I  served  out  the  stores. 
Several  became  sick  with  stomach  troubles;  but  they  simply  would  not  take 
the  extra  and  better  food  which  we  always  managed  to  reserve  for  the 
sick.     They  smiled  and  joked  through  it   all   and   never   grumbled. 

Whenever  my  faith  in  human  nature  tends  to  weahen  I  have  only  to 
think  of  those  fine  Australians  1  had  the  honor  to  be  mates  with  in  those 
early  days  of  Cosme,  and  my  faith  grows  strong  again.  It  does  one  good 
to  find  how  good  poor  old  human  nature  is,  to  know  to  what  great  heights 
it  can  rise. 

Co-operative  Labor. — All  males  over  15  and  single  women  over  16 
years  of  age  were  on  the  staff  of  organized  workers.  Work  was  directed 
by  an  industrial  manager,  who  received  general  instructions  from  the  com- 
mittee. We  had  a  45-hour  week.  Work  was  varied  and  largely  agricultural. 
All  labor  was  treated  as  of  the  same  value.  Disagreeable  work  was  shared 
'round  as  much  as  possible. 

Communal  Owning. — All  wealth,  excepting  purely  personal  possessions, 
such  as  clothing  and  personal  effects,  was  owned  by  the  community.  Land,, 
houses,  crops,  machinery,  tools,  stock,  and  general  goods  were  all  communal 
property.  Members  had  individual  use-hold  of  house  and  allotment.  SucK 
use-hold  was  of  a  permanent  nature,  and  did  not  prevent  a  man  improving: 
his  house  or  growing  fruit  or  flowers  in  his  garden. 

Communal  Sharing. — All  adults  had  equal  shares,  irrespective  of  age, 
sex,  capacity,  or  occupation.  Proportionate  shares  were  given  to  children 
according  to  age.  Whenever  it  could  be  reasonably  and  economically  done 
"free  issue"  was  practiced.  Thus,  certain  things  easily  grown  and  produced^ 
were  on   the   "freelist,"  and  were   handed  out   without   limit   or   charge;    i.e.,. 


53 

CTtacle,  mandioca.   sweel   potatoes,  bananas,  oranges,   and   tobacco. 

Limited  supplies  of  home-grown  products  were  shared  'round  eijually. 
Goods  bought  from  outside  were  supplied  on  an  equal  credit  system,  the  effect 
of  which  was  that  all  got  equal  value  of  this  class  of  goods,  but  pleased 
themselves  as  to  the  relative  pro|)ortions  of  the  different  articles  they  took. 
Government. — Absolutely  democratic,  general  meeting  being  the  basis 
of  all  authority.  Colony  affairs  were  managed  by  a  chairman,  committee, 
and  an  industrial  manager,  all  elected  by  direct  vote  of  members.  The  com- 
mittee met  weekly  and  decided  on  the  general  plan  of  colony  business.  The 
industrial  manager  superintended  all  industrial  affairs,  and  reported  weekly 
to  the  committee.  The  ordinary  general  meeting  of  members  was  held  yearly. 
Special  general  meetings  could  be  called  at  any  time.  Single  women  had  the 
right  to  vole,  which  right,  together  with  its  correlative  duty — comtnunal  labor 
under  the  direction  of  the  Cosme  authority — they  resigned  on  marriage. 

Teetotalism. — The  colony  was  teetotal.  Those  who  joined  accepted  it 
as  a  principle.  Pew  members  were  abstainers  before  joining,  but  the  princi- 
ple was  steadfastly  adhered  to,  and  Cosme  children  had  never  seen  a  drunken 
man. 

Religion. — In  Cosme  there  was  no  church,  no  priest,  no  ritual,  and  nc 
recci:.ized  religion  in  the  common  meaning  of  the  word,  implying  as  it  does, 
belief  in  certain  dogmas  and  conformity  to  certain  routine  observances.  But 
I  found  Cosme  a  very  religious  place;  for  there  religion  in  its  highest  sense — 
the  uplifting  of  man's  moral  nature  m  the  every-day  tendencies  of  liviiiii  - 
was  always  present. 

One  of  the  most  noticeeble  effects  of  communal  living  was  the  constantly 
rising  standard  of  art  as  shown  in  music,  drama,  and  literature.  The  early 
concerts  tended  to  crudeness.  With  few  exceptions  the  items  were  dreary 
and  the  aucience  bored.  But  a  singing  class  was  formed.  Almost  everybody 
tried  to  join.  The  toneless  and  tuneless  were  weeded  out.  and  singing  forged 
ahead.  The  dreary,  many-versed  old-time  songs  gave  way  to  minstral  melo- 
dies with  harmonized  choruses;  then  the  minstrels  developed  into  glee- 
singsrs,  and  later  on  into  pei  formers  in  opera  and  oratorio.  Musical  folk 
who  could  not  sing  took  to  instrumental  music.  The  non-musical  took  to 
plays.  At  first  the  screaming  farce  was  the  vogue;  then  came  the  Sher- 
idan and  Goldsmith  comedies,  leading  up  to  Shakespeare,  the  final  favorite. 
The  same  growth  in  appreciation  of  good  literature  was  just  as  marked. 
I  remember  how  in  the  giass  dining-room,  a  very  fine  lecture  by  H.  S.  Tay- 
lor, en  "Shelley,"  sent  the  bulk  of  the  audience  to  sleep.  But  "Evening 
Notes,"  With  Wm.  Lane  as  editor,  and  the  Sunday  evening  readings,  gleaned 
from  many  favorite  authors,  quickly  trained  the  Cosme  ear  and  mind,  and 
soon  made  a  fine  audience  for  good  -tnglish.  "livening  Notes"  also  provided 
a  ready  outlet  and  kindly  critical  hearers  for  any  with  the  talent  for  scribbling. 
.My  thoughts  even  now  linger  longingly  on  the  ;>ocial  side  of  Cosme.     I 


54 

have  since  lived  in  a  social  desert  cheered  by  but  too  few  oases.  And  when 
one  considers  that  this  active  healthy  social  living  was  attained  in  so  short 
9  time  by  men  and  women,  mostly  of  [X)or  education,  none  highly  educated, 
not  one  university  degree  in  the  whole  lot — what  must  one  think  of  what  social 
life  would  become  if  from  childhood  all  would  grow  up  in  fitting  social  en- 
vironment with  talented  teachers  in  the  arts  which  provide  such  true,  deep, 
and  lasting  pleasures? 

In  1896  the  colony  having  overcome  the  pioneering  difficulties,  Wm. 
Lane  went  to  Britain  to  organize  new  members,  it  being  regarded  as  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  equalize  the  sexes  so  as  to  give  the  bachelors  opportunity 
't:o  marry.  But  the  primitive  housing  and  surroundings,  hot  climate,  different 
and  coarser  food,  insect  pests,  rough  and  unaccustomed  work,  together  with 
that  general  strangeness  and  newness  of  things,  so  often  the  cause  of  home- 
sickness among  the  faint-hearted,  all  combined  to  make  most  of  the  new- 
comers dissatisfied  with  Cosme  life  and  soon  to  leave  it. 

This  breakdown  of  our  efforts  to  equalize  the  sexes  was  the  very  na- 
tural and  reasonable  cause  of  most  of  our  pioneer  bachelors  leaving.  They 
!iad  joined  in  the  hope  and  expectation  of  being  able  to  settle  down  in  homes 
of  their  own.  Withdrawals  owing  to  hardships  steadily  decreased  as  the 
years  went  by  and  the  standard  of  living  rose. 

But  another  class  of  difficulty  was  always  present  and  only  lessened  as 
members  adapted  themselves  to  Cosme  living.  This  difficulty  was  the  com- 
plete change  in  the  ethics  of  every-day  life,  and  the  consequent  necessity  of 
changing  one's  mode  of  action  toward  both  the  individual  and  the  community, 
which  breaking  of  lifelong  habits,  and  formation  of  new  ones,  made  no  small 
call  on  the  patience,  forbearance,  and  persistence  of  the  colonist. 

Some   left   because   they   found   the    place    too   individualistic,   more   be- 

,- cause    they   felt    too    keenly   "the    restraints    of   Communism."      Some    found 

themselves  temperamentally  unfitted  for  exercising  the  quality  of  forbearance, 

so  very  necessary  for  harmonious  life.     Several  who  joined  were  of  the  type 

;that  can  see  on'y  one  right  way  of  doing  anything,  whether  digguig  a  post- 

rliole  or  compiling  a  constitution ;    and  if  they  were  not  sound  enough  demo- 

,    crats  to  abide  loyally  by  the  will  of  the  majority  they  would  get  out  of  touch 

and  dnft  away.     Some  bachelors  left,  intending  to  return  in  double  harness. 

Several  benedicts  departed  because  their  wives  never  took  kindly  to  a  place 

from  which  the   keen   joys   of  bargain   shopping  were   missing.     One   elderly 

lady  suffered   from   orthodox   reHgious   views,  and  felt  so  unhappy  because 

of  the  presence  of  Sunday  cricket  and  the  absence  of  church  and  parson  that 

her  relatives — very  good  colonists — felt  compelled  to  remove  to  more  pious 

suiroundings.     Some  went  to  support  aged  relatives  in  England  or  Australia. 

Some  took  strong  personal  dislikes,  and  found  the  place  too  small,  while  a  few 

were  born  nomads  and  could  no  more  settle  down  on  Cosme  than  an)rwhere 

else. 


55 

William  Lane  left  the  colony  in  1899.  He  felt  he  could  do  more  cftec- 
■ti\c  work  by  press  writing  in  the  outside  world.  He  also  wanted  to  earn 
money  to  liquidate  a  loan  which  the  colony  had  received,  and  for  which  he 
regarded   himself  as   personally   liable. 

In  1901  another  effort  was  made  to  increase  membership.  I  came 
to  .Australia  to  obtain  more  members,  and  no  special  difficulty  was  found 
in  getting  reciuits;  but  the  results  turned  out  to  be  as  before,  though  this 
lime  none  left  on  account  of  hardships. 

In  May.    1904,  the   population   was  only  69 — 33   adults  and   36  children. 

I  myself  considered  that  Cosme's  only  chance  of  keeping  white  was  to 
grow.  If  it  failed  to  grow  it  must  ultimately  become  Paraguayan.  I  could 
not  risk  that  for  my  children,  so  I  decided  to  return  to  Australia.  I  left 
Cosme  at   the   end  of    1904. 

That  is  almost  20  years  ago.  I  am  informed  that  the  colony  since  then 
gradually  drifted  into  individualism,  and  the  land  and  properly  were  divided 
\ip   among    those    who    remained. 

The  slogan  of  Cosme  Colony  was  "Cosme  does  all  it  possibly  can  for  its 
members,  and  it  relies  on  them  to  think  as  much  of  the  colony  as  they  do 
of  themselves,  if  not  a  little  more." 

.At  the  death  of  William  Lane,  a  brief  biography  was  written  in  an  Aus- 
tralian labor  paper  by  Mr.  S.  S.  Ross: 

"Billy  Lane  is  dead — dear  old  Billy  Lane.  And  he  died  in  the  camp 
of  the  enemy.  There  is  the  infinite  tragedy  of  it  "•■  ^  '''  It  was  hard  to  accept 
the  fact  of  Lanes  death.  He  was  so  much  to  so  many  of  us  years  ago.  Never 
phrase  maker  so  magical,  nor  personality  so  picturesque,  nor  preacher  so 
magnetic,  nor  propagandist  so  mighty  to  us  of  the  90's  "^  ^'  ''^  Those  who  came 
uno'er  his  influence  were  stirred  to  the  depths,  mentally  and  spiritually.  He 
made  all  things  new.  '^  *•'  ^' 

".My  memories  are  rocking  and  shouting  as  I  think  of  Billy  Lane,  of. 
by,  and  for  the  people,  man  of  the  mob,  soul  of  the  cause,  lever  of  the 
movement." 

"He  wrote  and  he  preached  and  he  stormed  at  the  trades  unions.  He 
did  more.  He  organized  them  in  preparation  for  action,  infecting,  if  not  the 
rank  and  file,  those  whose  services  were  the  more  effective,  the  leading  of- 
ficials of  the  various  branches  and  trades  ^'  ^  ^'  He  showered  pamphlets  in 
thousands  among  them.  He  had  agents  in  every  center  of  population.  His 
■v%eekly  paper  circulated  in  every  mining  camp  and  shearing  shed  in  Queens- 
land '•'■  ^  *  He  founded  debating  societies  and  reading  clubs  *•'"  ^''  *  His  mag- 
netic personality  drew  hundreds  of  young  workers,  artisans,  clerks,  and 
many  of  the  restless,  discontented  enthusiasts  in  every  walk  of  life  around 
him.  He  succeeded  *  *  ^'  in  establishing  the  best  organized  band  of  workers 
in  Australia,  and  probably  in  the  world. 

"While  on  the  'Worker,*  Lane  conceived  the  star-tinted  idea  of  th^  New 


56 

Australia  Co-operative  Settlement.  Curiously  enough,  not  that  so  many  were 
drawn  into  this  celebrated  experiment  in  communism,  but  comparatively  a 
few,  is  the  marvel  historians  must  not  forget.  Ere  long  Lane  resigned  the 
editorship  and  devoted  his  shining  talents  to  organizing  recruits  for  Para- 
guay, South  America.  In  the  yellowing  little  paper  he  wrote  his  captivating 
best.  In  1893  Lane  left  Queensland  never  to  set  foot  again  on  its  soil.  For 
six  years  he  labored  in  "New  Australia"  and  "Cosme,"  thence  returning  to 
Australia  an  altered  and  beaten  man. 

William  Lane  went  back  into  newspaper  work;  but  he  was  unable  to  for- 
get his  disappointment,  and  seemed  to  strive  to  obliterate  his  former  person- 
ify.    Lane  died  at  the  age  of  56. 

From  the  "Cosme  Monthly"  of  July,  1903,  then  in  the  ninth  year  of 
publication,  we  take  the  following  descriptive  account  of  Cosme,  written  by 
E.  H.  Lane. 

"We  travel  to  Cosme  from  the  Maciel  railway  station  by  carreta  (two- 
wheeled  bullock  wagon)  ;  eight  miles  brings  us  to  Caazapa,  the  nearest  town- 
ship to  the  colony;  nine  miles  more  and  we  reach  the  Pirago  river,  which 
we  cross  by  means  of  the  bridge  ^  ^  ^.  This  bridge  was  built  some  six  years 
ago  under  the  supervision  of  Allan  McLeod,  the  present  industrial  manager 
of  the  colony.  It  is  of  great  local  benefit,  and  is  indicative  of  the  reasons 
why  the  Paraguan  government  and  people  are  interested  in  the  well-being 
of  Cosme.  Another  mile  takes  us  over  the  river  estero  (flat,  semi-swampy 
land),  then,  after  crossing  some  open  grass  land,  we  enter  one  of  the  far- 
famed  monies  of  Paraguay  and  pass  th^  Cosme  river.  Words  cannot  con- 
vey any  adequate  idea  of  the  beauty  of  ihe  Paraguayan  forest.  The  roarl 
is  cut  through  the  very  heart  of  it.  Overhead  tower  the  trees,  intertwired 
■with  huge  creepers,  making  the  sky  itself  but  a  faint  background  to  the  ever- 
green arch.  Timber,  altogether  strange  to  the  newcomer,  is  on  every  voe; 
but  palms  and  many  well-remembered  species  of  fern  life  flourish  in  won- 
drous luxuriance.  The  irrepressible  wild  orange  trees,  laden  with  £[jlden 
fruit,  struggle  bravely  to  pierce  the  dense  foliage  and  salute  the  sun  while 
myriads  of  parrots  and  other  gaudy  birds  break  the  stillness  of  tKp  j.ervad- 
ing  calm. 

"Originally  the  Cosmans  were  living  on  some  open  campla'^'J  '''  **'  *. 
As  soon  as  the  monte  was  cleared,  the  village  was  planned  anr-  houses  were 
gradually  built  until  the  old  site  was  entirely  deserted  and  ever^  one  became 
domiciled  in  the  village.  The  houses  varied  in  size  according  *  >  the  number 
in  a  family,  from  the  one  room  of  the  single  man  to  the  f-'.r-roomed  cot- 
,  tage  and  kitchen  of  the  larger  families.  The  frame  and  w?-'-'-s  of  the  houses 
are  now  built  of  sawn«  timber,  roofs  thatched,  earthen  floov^  which  are  now 
being  improved  with  wood  blocking,  no  windows  (but  shr-Ts)  yet,  for  all 
that,  good,  weather-proof  houses.  Each  of  the  .houses  has  erauc^h  ground  to 
'■'(enable  the  occupier  to  follow  to  the  top  of  his  bent  any  par.  lening  ideas  he 


57 
'■may  have  ^  ^'  ^'.    Many  of  the  gardens  are   nicely  laid  out   with   roses,  car- 
nations,   violets,   honeysuckle,    and    many    other    well-known    favorites    *    *    *'. 
Fruit  trees  are  planted  in  the  streets,  and  some  also  m  nearly  all  the  gardens, 
"vshiie  ornamental   trees  are   also   in   evidence  *"  ^  *. 

About  300  yards  from  the  village,  in  the  midst  of  the  vivid  green  of 
the  sugar  cane,  are  the  colony  workshops.  Here  is  the  center  of  the  com- 
munity's industrial  life.  The  main  buildii\g  is  a  fine  substantial  structure  60 
feet  long.  40  feet  wide,  and  24  feet  high.  It  is  built  of  solid  and  durable 
limber  throughout.  .Attached  to  it  are  the  sugar  boiling  works  and  smithy. 
In  the  workshops  are  the  cane  mill,  corn  mill,  sawing  plant,  carpenters 
bench,  lathes,  and  morticing  machine.  The  sugar  is  stored  on  the  top  floor, 
where  also  is  the  tobacco  press.  The  machinery  is  driven  by  a  substantial 
14  h.p.  steam  engine.  In  the  worksh'^ps  almost  every  kind  of  work  neces- 
sary for  the  colony  is  turned  out —  sugar,  corn  meal,  sawn  timber,  carts, 
furniture,   iron   work,   books,   and   many   tools. 

Oranges  are  everywhere,  in  monte,  grove,  street,  and  garden.  The  golden 
fruit  is  ripe  and  superabundant  from  May  to  December  and  adds  a  charm 
to  everything.  *  '''  ^  .Ml  sorts  thrive  equally  well.  Lemons  and  limes  are 
ripe  and  plentiful  all  the  year  'round.  Close  to  the  village  is  a  grove  of 
1500  oranges,  limes,  and  lemons;  but  there  is  plenty  of  fruit  on  the  trees  in 
the  streets  to  supply  all  needs  for  a  couple  of  months  yet  ^'  *  *''" 

The  [Kjpulation  at  this  time  was  published  as  being  30  men,  15  women, 
and  50  children,  a  total  of  95.  with  6  men  and  two  women  absent  on  leave. 

Operations  recorc'ed  consisted  of  sugar-making,  building,  fencing,  haul- 
ing, stock-raising,  boot-making,  tanning,  gardening,  teaching,  cooking,  butch- 
ering, storekeeping.  printing,  and  mail-carrying.  A  financial  report  in  some 
detail  showed  funds  derived  from  various  sources,  including  the  Paraguayan 
government. 

It  advertised  for  members.  I)ut  stipulated  they  must  be  strong,  healthy 
people  able  to  subscr.be  to  Cosme  principles  and  not  afraid  of  hard  work  and 
living.  "Full  membership  is  in  each  case  preceded  by  a  year's  trial  member- 
ship in  the  colony."  Membership  agents  were  listed  m  England  and  Aus- 
»^^Iia. 

A  synopsis  compiled  from  material  gathered  from  various  sources  by 
an  Australian  interested  in  this  venture,  gives  an  epitomi/ed  history  as  follows: 

Cosme  began  with  30  pioneers  whose  capital  averaged  about  $25  a 
head.  They  had  to  clear  a  dense  jungle.  Education  was  primary  and  the 
study  of  literature  was  always  a  prominent  feajure  of  the  Cosme  life.  The 
land  was  originally  in  the  name  of  the  founder,  William  Lane,  who  later 
transferred  it  to  a  Board  of  Trustees.  These  trustees  had  to  have  a  resident 
membership  of '5  years.  The  colony  was  seven  years  old  when  the  resident 
clause  came  into  force.  The  hours  of  labor  were  45  a  week  and  disagree- 
able labor  was  shared  by  all. 


58 

On  an  average  the  males  outnumbered  the  females  by  2  to  1  in  the 
colony.  The  industries  were  tannery,  sugar  mills,  sawmill.  *  '^  *  Govern- 
ment consisted  of  a  president  and  committee  of  three,  with  one  industrial 
manager  elected  on  adult  male  franchise.  The  trustees  were  nine  in  num- 
ber and  a  two-thirds  majority  was  necessary  to  make  or  unmake  a  rule  at 
any  meeting.  The  meetings  were  executive,  board  of  trustees,  and  Annual- 
Conference.  Single  men  were  barred  from  the  colony  from  time  to  time  be- 
cause of  the  prep>onderance  of  males  over  females. 

Fires  at  various  times,  destroying  the  social  hall,  library,  tannery,  and 
several  dwellings.  Nothing  was  insured.  The  highest  membership  was  at- 
tained in  1895  and  was  150;  but  in  1904  this  had  dwindled  to  65.  The 
absence  of  modern  agricultural  machinery  was  a  great  drawback  at  all  times 
^  ^  ^.  In  1899  the  Ruskin  Colony  of  Tennessee  was  offered  a  large  tract 
of  the  Paraguay  land  by  the  Cosme  colonists.  The  chief  crops  and  source 
of  income  were  from  sugar  cane  and  lumbering.  Money  for  financing  the 
colony  was  obtained  from  a  private  company,  but  at  high  rates  of  interest. 
William  Lane  also  loaned  money,  but  this  was  free  from  interest. 

Any  comment  on  Cosme  could  be  only  in  admiration  of  the  fortitude  and 
singleness  of  purpose  of  those  hardy  Australians  with  their  high  idealism  and 
devotion  to  principle.  They  were  evidently  of  the  right  typ>e,  and  it  was  no 
fault  of  either  them  as  persons  nor  of  their  colony  as  organized  that  they 
failed  to  succeed,  but  rather  of  an  unfortunate  choice  of  location. 

As  Fred  Harris  comments:  *^  ^'  ^  I  have  often  wondered  *  ^  ^  why 
Lane  went  to  the  expense  to  fit  out  a  full-rigged  ship  to  start  in  an  unknown 
part  of  the  world,  among  a  people  who  spoke  a  different  language,  and  far 
from  their  kith  and  kin,  which  fact  John  Lane  refers  to  concerning  some  of 
the  secessions  from  Cosme;  but  probably  it  was  on  account  of  the  hostile 
Tory  Government  that  ruled  here  at  that  period.  Over  here  we  have  climatic 
conditions  equal  to  anything  in  the  world  ^  ^  ^" 

Whatever  the  reason,  it  is  quite  propable,  as  Mr.  John  Lane  analyzes  it, 
that  the  remoteness  and  the  difficulty  in  getting  people  to  be  satisfied  so  far 
away  had  much  to  do  with  the  failure.  Yet  it  was  not  a  failure  from  material 
causes,  but  a  breaking  down  of  the  colony  or  community  spirit  and  a  slipping 
into  individualism  after  more  than  a  decade  because  of  the  lack  of  new  re- 
cioiits  to  keep  the  community  growing.  This  may  reasonably  be  attributed 
to  its  location.  Whatever  other  trials  might  have  beset  it  had  it  been  in  an 
English-speaking  country  are  problematical,  but  it  seems  that  we  are  justified 
in  concluding  that  Cosme  has  demonstrated  that  Community  life  on  a  secular 
basis  is  possible,  and  that  with  a  desirable  location  the  chances  of  success  are 
sufficient  to  justify  such  experiments  being  made.  Cosme  has  contributed 
to  the  history  of  Communities  an  important  chapter.  Individualistic  com- 
rounities  similarly  located  have  failed  in  much  less  time,  and  their  failure  has 
hccn  spiritual  as  well  as  material;    this  was  not  true  of  Cosme. 


59 

SMALL  OR  SHORT-LIVED  COMMUNITIES 

FRUITLANDS 

This  was  a  short-lived  colony  founded  at  Harvard.  Massachusetts,  found- 
ed at  a  little  later  date  than  Brook  Farm.  Transcendenlalists  were  the  men^- 
bership.  It  was  organized  as  a  "family."  No  money  was  handled  by  mem- 
bers. They  used  no  animal  foods,  not  even  milk  or  eggs.  Neither  did  they 
use  tea.  coffee,  molasses,  rice,  or  any  thing  not  grown  there.  They  used 
pine  knots  to  furnish  light.  They  did  not  even  enslave  animals  for  do- 
iT>estic  use.  and  used  the  spade  instead  of  the  plow.  Its  life  was  but  a  few 
months,  and  it  is  chiefly  im|X)rtant  in  this  history  because  it  shows  the  rather 
fanatical  groups  which  have  tried  to  associate  themselves  in  Community  life, 
persons  so  utterly  impractical  in  an  enterprise  where  the  utmost  practicality  is 
needed,  that  their  early  failure  is  foreshadowed  by  their   fantastic  notions. 


SKANEATELES     COMMUNITY 
1844   to    1846 

This  Community  was  established  in  Skaneateles.  New  York,  by  John 
A.  Collins,  and  can  be  considered  the  experiment  of  this  one  man;  for  the 
land  was  held  in  his  name,  chiefly,  though  another  man's  name  was  used  in  a 
•way  which  subsequently  caused  trouble.  It  was  non-religious,  but  not  irre- 
ligious. Its  location  was  favorable;  it  had  300  acres  of  land.  70  covered 
with  fine  timber,  the  rest  fenced,  40  acres  ©f  wheat.  130  acres  of  corn,  be- 
sides vegetables  and  fruits  and  grain.  There  was  a  two-story  stone  house 
well  furnished,  with  a  30-foot  extension,  with  other  buildings.  It  had  watei 
p>ower  and  a  mill  with  wood-working  machinery.  The  number  of  colonists 
was  about  90.  When  the  colony  was  terminated  because  its  founder  did 
not  care  to  go  on  with  it  any  longer,  the  proF>erty  was  worth  twice  what  was 
paid  for  it.  One  of  the  reasons  why  the  founder  decided  on  this  may  be 
judged  from  his  characterization  of  the  people  who  go  into  colonies.  He 
says : 

"Our  previous  convictions  have  been  confirmed  that  not  all  who  are  most 
clamorous  for  reform  are  competent  to  become  successful  agents  for  its  ac- 
complishment— that  there  is  floating  upon  the  surface  of  society  a  body  of 
restless,  disappointed,  jealous,  indolent  spirits,  disgusted  with  our  present 
social  system,  not  because  it  enchains  the  masses  to  poverty,  ignorance,  vice, 
and  endless  servitude,  but  because  they  could  not  render  it  subservient  to 
their  private  ends.  Experience  convinces  us  that  this  class  stands  ready  to 
mount  every  new  movement  that  promises  ease,  abundance,  and  individual 
free<k)m;  and  that  when  such  an  enterprise  refuses  to  interpret  license  for 
fre««k>m,  and  insists  that  every  member  shall  make  his  strength,  skill,  and 
taleal  »ub«ervient   to  the  movement,  then   the  cry  of  tyranny  and  oppression 


60 

is  raised  against  those  who  advocate  such  industry  and  self-denial — then 
the  enterprise  must  become  a  scapegoat,  to  bear  the  fickleness,  indolence,  sel- 
fishness, and  envy  of  this  class." 

There  were  disturbers  at  Skaneateles,  and  they  were  hired  to  go.  The 
Community  did  not  expel  them,  as  it  had  a  right  to  do,  but  purchased  their 
leaving  at  a  cost  of  $3,000.  And  Mr.  Collins  says:  "In  this  winnowing  pro- 
cess it  would  be  remarkable  if  much  good  wheat  were  not  carried  off  with  the 
chaff. 

"The  problem  of  social  reform  must  be  solved  by  its  own  members — by 
those  possessed  of  living  faith,  indomitable  perseverance,  u .flinching  devo- 
tion, and  undying  energy.  Stability  of  character,  industrious  habits,  physi- 
<:al  energy,  moral  strength,  mental  force,  and  benevolent  feelings  are  charac- 
teristics indispensible  to  a  valuable  communist.  A  Community  of  such  mem- 
bers has  an  inexhaustible  mine  of  wealth,  though  not  in  possession  of  one 
dollar." 

The  importance  of  Skaneateles  is  the  importance  of  the  character  of  the 
■membership,  and  the  observations  of  the  founder,  Mr.  Collins,  are  words  of 
^visdom,  to  be  studied  and  pondered  by  all  who  seek  to  establish  colonies  or 
"who  expect  to  enter  them.  Self-examination  should  precede  examination  by 
the  group,  for  the  examination  is  certain  to  follow,  whether  intended  or  not. 


THE     BETHEL  -  AURORA    COMMUNITIES 
Bethel,  1844  to  1880  —  Aurora,  1856  to  1911 

Not  important  because  of  their  achievements,  but  deserving  of  passing 
mention,  were  the  Bethel  and  .Aurora  Communities.  Bethel  was  established  in 
1844  in  Shelby  County,  Missouri,  and  was  made  up  in  part  by  Rappites  and 
some  of  those  who  had  followed  off  the  bogus  Count  de  Leon.  Dr.  Wm.  Kiel 
was  its  founder.  Bethel  lasted  until  1880,  so  that  in  period  of  duration  it 
showed  success.  The  community  owned  5,000  acres  of  good  land  and  was 
prosperous.  It  provided  the  members,  mostly  Germans,  with  an  abundance  of 
good  things  to  eat.  At  one  time  Bethel  had  1000  members,  but  there  were 
many  secessions  in  the  early  days  before  success  had  attended  their  efforts, 
and  at  one  single  secession  250  members  left.  At  the  time  of  dissolution  there 
were  about  1  75  m2mbers.  The  Community  was  founded  on  a  religious  basis. 
Seceders  could  take  with  them  whatever  property  they  had  brought  in.  They 
had  a  strange  mixture  of  inaividualism  and  collectivism,  but  in  the  years  of 
maturity  the  colony  preserved  harmony  and  happiness  for  its  members. 
There  wrs  no  constitution  or  by-laws.  The  Bethel  band  became  famous  for 
many  miles. 

.Thg  Aurora  Communily_vvas  founded  in  1856  in  Marion  County,  Oregon, 
"by  Dr.  Kiel.  Applicants  for  membership  were  at  first  paid  Wages  and  re- 
ceived on  probation.  There  was  no  .money  cqu'sidferatipn  iii  the  terms  of  mem- 
tership.     The  land  in  both  communities  was   for  years  held  by  Dr.  Ki^^l,  but 


6) 
eventually  it  was  parceled  out  and  title  deeds  were  given.  However,  this  made 
no  difference  in  the  Community  life,  showing  how  well  grounded  they  v»ere 
in  their  collectivism.  .At  the  time  of  dissolution  theie  were  250  members  at 
Aurora.  There  was  no  friction,  and  the  dis>oluiion  was  made  eaty  by  the 
fact  that  property  had  previously  been  deeded.  The  reason  for  dissolutio:) 
was  the  death  of  Dr.  Kiel.  No  one  had  been  trained  to  take  his  place,  aiid. 
though  many  were  not  in  favor  of  the  separation,  it  teemed  to  have  been 
regarded  as  the  only  course  to  take.  The  pro|>erlies  were  valued  at  nrariv 
$200,000  when  the  change  was  made. 


COLORADO     CO-OPERATIVE     COMMUNITY 
1894    to    1910 

This  was  what  might  be  termed  a  temporary  co-operative,  it  is  ^tlange 
how  many  people  can  recogni/e  the  benefits  of  co-oi>eration.  yet  use  them  only 
so  long  as  it  may  be  necessary  to  reach  a  |x>int  where  they  may  go  back  into 
com|>etition  and  individualism. 

The  Colorado  Co-operative  Company  was  organized  in  1894.  and  the 
site  of  its  operations  were  Fabegauche  Park  in  Montrose  county.  Colorado. 
The  scenery  was  described  as  being  beautiful:  the  elevation  was  4800  to 
5400  feet,  with  snow-capped  mountains  surrounding.  The  Company  went 
through  the  usual  troubles  due  to  lack  of  adequate  financing,  with  the  con- 
sequent dissension:  yet  it  held  together  and  completed  the  chief  work  it  set 
out  to  CO — bring  water  to  the  land   for   irrigating. 

Eugene  Hopkins,  a  personal  friend  of  the  compiler  of  this  volume,  and 
a  member  ol  the  Llano  Co-operative  Colony,  writes  from  Healdsburg.  Cali- 
fornia,  as    follows: 

"I  was  a  member  and  active  worker  for  ten  years  in  the  Colorado  Co- 
operative Company  at  Nucla.  Colorado.  1  held  positions  on  the  board  of 
directors  and  was  ditch  superintendent  and  water  distributor  for  three  sea- 
sons after  the  ditch  was  completed.  Enclosed  you  will  find  .some  literature  in 
regard  to  this  co-operative  ditch  colony  which  was  organized  in   1894. 

"The  main  object  of  this  colony  was  to  build  an  irrigation  ditch.  This 
canal  was  seventeen  miles  long  from  the  headgate  to  the  initial  point  on  the 
parks,  and  was  built  thru  a  mountainous  country  which  required  not  only 
ditches,  but  stretches  of  flume  and  also  large  trestles  over  canyons;  one  trestle 
was  over  I0(J  feet  high.  Much  blasting  of  rock  was  required  for  flume  beds, 
it  cost  over  $100,000  and  had  a  capacity  of  60  feet  of  water.  It  was  a  big 
undertaking  to  be  built  by  men  without  capital. 

"This  irrigation  project  was  not  declared  completed  until  about  the  year 
1910.  The  Colorado  Co-operative  Company  built  this  ditch  by  co-opera- 
tion, but  when  the  ditch  was  completed,  the  members  of  the  company  went  on 
to  their  land  on  which  they  had  filed  and  proved  up  and  sta;ted  farming  indi* 


62 

vidually.      Co-operation    then   ceased   and   no   more    enterprises   were    carried' 
on  in  this  manner." 

TTie  colony  pubHshed  "The  Altrurian,"  a  weekly  newspaper,  for  several 
years.  The  issue  of  August  16,  1899,  carries  a  long  address  by  one  of 
the  members  in  which  he  reviewed  some  of  the  troubles  through  which  they 
were  going.  They  had  attempted  a  task  which  was  almost  beyond  them,  and 
with  their  handicaps  of  lack  of  finance  and  equipment,  they  were  making 
slow  and  difficult  progress.  Their  diet  was  limited  to  the  most  frugal  and 
plain  fare,  and  they  lacked  sufficient  feed  for  their  animals — handicaps  that 
have  been  common  to  co-operative  colonies. 

The  by-laws  of  the  company  show  that  nine  directors  constituted  a  board, 
holding  office  for  one  year.  Officers  of  the  concern  were  bonded  at  $1,000 
each.  An  election  to  remove  the  directors  could  be  called  by  a  petition  signed 
by  a  majority  of  the  stock  holders.  The  plan  was  to  employ  stockholders  of 
the  association,  though  not  all  of  the  mwere  guaranteed  employment,  and  they 
were  warned  against  coming  without  being  given  permission  by  the  directors.. 
It  was  also  provided  that  the  General  Manager  could  deprive  members  of 
work  for  wilful  negligence  or  refusal  to  perform  reasonable  service. 

A  statement  sent  out  under  date  of  June  25,  1902,  showed  assets  of 
$121,985.92,  with  losses  of  $224  and  gains  of  $681  for  the  period  of  five  pre- 
ceding months.  These  were  evidently  operated  on  a  profit  plan  at  the  time; 
those  reporting  were  the  sawmill,  blacksmith  shop,  freighting,  dairy,  boarding 

houses,   store, camp,   and   harness    shop.      The    asset   column   of   the 

statement  listed  a  store,  harness  shop,  blacksmith  shop,  pnntery,  drug  store, 
dairy,  garden,  sawmill,  lumber  and  boxes,  boarding  houses,  livestock  consist- 
ing of  29  horses  and  mules  and  15  cows  and  calves.  The  timber  land  was 
appraised  at  $500. 

Among  the  provisions  of  the  constitution  and  by-laws  intended  to  protect 
the  colony  against  individual  enterprise  and  selfishness,  was  one  which  stipu- 
lated that  the  company  should  control  all  public  utilities,  and  no  franchise 
should  be  given  to  individuals.  All  members  should  be  entitled  to  water 
rights  at  the  pro-rated  cost  of  the  ditch.  All  credits  for  labor  above  the 
actual  needs  of  the  members  were  to  be  funded  upon  the  company's  books  un- 
til the  ditch  was  finished,  when  they  should  be  payable  in  any  product  of 
the  company  or  property. 

But  as  stated  in  Mr.  Hopkins'  letter,  the  co-operative  features  were  aban- 
doned when  the  ditch  was  finished  and  water  was  turned  on  to  the  land. 
Nevertheless,  here  was  a  good  example  of  a  co-operative  association,  which, 
despite  many  problems  and  much  inner  turmoil,  was  able  to  keep  steadily 
going  from  1894  until  1910 — surely  a  pretty  good  record  under  the  circum- 
stances which  were  faced. 

CELESTA    SECOND    ADVENTISTS 
"It  would  be  interesting,"  comments  Hinds,  "to  know  how  many  commun-^ 


63 
islic  Societies  have  been  based  Xipon  the  doctrine  of  Christ's  second  advent. 
This  was  the  foundation  of  Shakerism  '^^  *  *.  Eric  Janson.  founder  of  Bishop 
Hill  Community,  had  a  similar  idea  regarding  himself.  That,  too,  was  the 
basic  idea  of  the  Harmonites  '^  ■'^-  '■■  "  Hinds  mentions  several  others,  among 
them  being  Celesta,  founded  by  Peter  Armstrong  as  a  Sccond-Adventist  Com- 
munity. It  prophesied  the  coming  of  Christ  in  1843  or  soon  after.  Arm- 
strong was  convinced  that  144.000  persons  were  to  be  gathered  together. 
This  number  also  appears  in  the  religious  beliefs  of  other  groups,  the  House 
of  David  among  them.  Armstrong  thought  it  was  his  duty  to  begin  gather- 
ing the  select,  and  he  secured  a  desolate  location  in  the  Allegheny  moun- 
tains in  Sullivan  County.  Pennsylvania.  2500  acres  being  the  site.  With  his 
family  he  cleared  100  acres  in  I  I  years,  put  up  four  houses,  two  barns,  a  saw- 
mill and  some  smaller  buildings.  A  neighbor  commented  that  "it  cost 
$40  an  acre  to  clear  the  land,  and  it  was  worth  $5  when  cleared." 

His  religious  zeal  led  Armstrong  to  deed  the  land  to  Almighty  God,  tho 
it  was  subsequently  sold  for  taxes  and  purchased  by  a  son  of  the  founder  of 
Celesta.  Not  more  than  20  persons  ever  resided  in  the  Community,  but  as 
their  paper  reached  a  circulation  of  3000.  Hinds  concludes  that  many  thou- 
sands might  have  gone  into  the  barren  wilderness  with  those  whose  misdi- 
rected zeal  led  them  to  found  Celesta.  Hinds  included  the  account  of  Celesta 
as  an  example  of  what  energy  without  wisdom  might  do  and  how  it  might 
work  great  misfortune  to  many  persons.  Celesta  failed,  however,  before 
many  were  drawn  into  it.  the  fanaticism  of  its  founder  being  sufficient  to  fin- 
ally bring  publicity  which  exposed  the  facts. 


ADONAI  -  SHOMO 


This  community  was  founded  at  Athol.  Massachusetts,  in  1861.  by  about 
ten  persons  led  by  a  Quaker.  Frederick  T.  Howjand.  who  became  a  Second 
.Adventist.  The  community  was  chartered  in  1876  under  state  laws.  It  lasted 
about  35  years.  They  became  known  as  Fullerites  because  they  settled  in 
the  property  of  Leonard  Fuller.  The  leader.  Howland.  held  to  the  theory  of 
the  immortal  life,  as  did  many  of  the  religious  sects,  among  them  being  the 
Swedes  under  Eric  Janson.  and  the  Koreshans  under  Dr.  Teed.  The  death 
of  Howland  was  a  shock  to  his  devout  followers,  just  as  was  the  death  of 
janson  and  Teed  to  their  followers,  who  accepted  their  leaders*  assertions 
literally.  A  man  by  the  name  of  Cook  became  leader  and  instituted  such 
revolting  practices  as  led  to  his  indictment  by  the  grand  jury  and  subsequent 
imprisonment. 

However,  the  Community  changed  somewhat  and  prospered  for  some 
years,  eventually  owning  840  acres  of  land,  a  large  unitary  building,  ar.d  an  in- 
creased membership  which  reached  about  30  at  the  most.  It  could  not  hold  its 
younger  members.  The  property  was  sold  in  1897  for  $4,390  to  satisfy  cred- 
itors.    The  buildings  were  quite  large  and  well-built. 


64 

ST.    NAZIAZ     COLONY 

This  was  a  community  of  Roman  Catholics,  emigrants  from  Germany^ 
who  settled  in  Manitowoc  County,  Wisconsin.  They  settled  in  the  wilder- 
ness, buying  land  at  $3.50  an  acre,  purchasing  3840  acres.  It  was  origin- 
ally held  by  its  founder.  Father  Oschwald,  in  trust,  but  on  his  death  the  so- 
ciety incorporated  and  took  charge  of  the  property  after  some  legal  diffi- 
culties. The  members  were  celibate,  each  sex  having  its  unitary  build- 
ings. The  life  was  communal.  A  letter  directed  to  the  Society  failed  to  bring 
a  reply,  but  it  may  still  be  in  existence. 


THE     BRUEDERHOFF     COMMUNITIES 

These  were  made  up  of  Mennonites  under  Jacob  Hutter,  who  go  further 
than  most  of  their  brethren  and  do  not  engage  in  traffic  for  profit,  nor  take 
usury  nor  use  tobacco.  They  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  usual  forms  of  re- 
creation, take  no  part  in  politics,  and.  do  not  vote  or  hold  office.  They  are 
Communists  because  they  believe  Christ  was  a  communist.  They  came  from 
Southern   Russia,  but   are  of  German   extraction. 

The  first  of  the  Hutterites  came  in  1862  when  the  Hutterische  colony  was 
formed  on  the  James  river  in  South  Dakota.  Others  followed,  and  several 
communities  were  founded.  Efforts  to  get  in  touch  with  them  to  learn  of 
development  during  the  last  20  years  were  not  successful,  and  it  may  be  that 
they  are  no  longer  in  existence.  They  had  a  total  of  more  than  30,000  acres 
of  land  and  several  hundred  members  during  the  first  years  of  the  present 
century. 


BROTHERHOOD    OF    THE    NEW    LIFE 

Thomas  Lake  Harris  founded  a  belief  which  took  this  name  and  which 
had  adherents  in  several  countries.  Though  born  in  England,  he  became 
very  widely  known  as  minister  in  a  New  York  church  and  formed  a  Com- 
munity in  Virginia  in  1851.  They  claimed  they  had  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Garden  of  Eden.  It  was  to  have  been  a  city  of  harmony  and  refuge;  but, 
evidently,  the  original  serpent  was  still  in  hiding,  for  quarrels  soon  broke 
out,  and  the  members  left  in  about  two  years. 

Fourteen  years  later  another  community  was  established  in  New  York 
state  with  a  rather  remarkable  aggregation  of  colonists  which  included  a  num- 
ber of  children,  sixty  adults,  five  ministers,  a  number  of  Japanese,  a  man 
of  literary  fame,  and  a  member  of  the  English  nobility.  This  was  in  1869. 
They  had  about  2,000  acres  of  farm  and  vineyard  lands,  and  one  of  the  chief 
occupations  was  the  manufacture  of  wines  for  medicinal  purpose.  They 
had  storage  for  65,000  gallons  and  were  establishing  industries  when  the 
colony  collapsed.  Later  another  effort  was  made  in  California,  near  Santa 
Rosa,  but  a  woman   who  was  permitted   to  live   in   the   colony   for   a   period' 


65 

published  in  the  newspapers  such  accusations  a^^i.^sl  Harris  and  his  asso- 
ciates that  the  whole  neighborhood  arose  and  the  colonists  were  forced  to 
lea\e. 

MME.     MODJESKA'S     COLONY 

Thi>  \v..s  louiiced  iii  Cracow.  Poland,  in  IW7b.  l»y  a  group  of  distinguish- 
ed people,  most  famous  among  whom  was  Mmc.  Helena  Modjeska.  who  had 
become  wearied  of  the  stage.  It  numbered  among  its  members  also  Henry 
Sienkiewiez.  later  to  become  widely  known  as  the  author  of  "Quo  V'adis." 
There  were  artists  and  writers  and  musicians.  In  fact  Hinds  refers  to  it 
as  a  "Polish  Brook  Farm."  This  brilliant  aggregation  of  talented  people 
organized  in  Cracow,  but  came  to  Orange  County,  near  Los  Angeles,  Cali- 
fornia, the  following  year,  where  they  spent  $54,000  in  a  short  time  as  a  com- 
munity, besides  the  individual  expenditures  of  the  members.  They  knew  lit- 
tle of  the  practical  methods  to  employ,  and  while  they  greatly  enjoyed  the 
brief  life  of  their  colony,  it  was  not  a  financial  success,  and  finally  had  to  dis- 
band. Not  long  ago  this  land  was  offered  for  sale  at  fabulous  prices,  and  the 
fact  that  it  was  at  one  time  colonized  by  Modjeska  was  made  much  of  by  the 
promoters.  The  social  life  of  the  colony  was  highly  developed,  as  may  well 
be  imagined,  but  there  was  little  practical  work  done,  and  it  is  to  be  feared' 
that  the  Califomians  were  none  too  scrupulous  in  their  dealings  with  the  Eu- 
jopean  colonists. 

SHALAM,  OR  THE  CHILDREN'S  COLONY 
This  was  founded  by  Dr.  J.  B.  Newbrough.  who  wrote  a  Bible  which  he 
called  Oahspee,  claiming  that  he  wrote  it  on  the  typewriter  while  guided  by 
unseen  spirits.  The  colony  was  not  a  success.  The  purpose  was  to  bring 
orphan  and  unfortunate  children  and  create  a  great  institution  which  would 
make  useful  citizens  of  them.  Much  of  the  funds  were  contributed  by  A.  M. 
Howland,  about  1,000  acres  of  land  in  the  Masilla  Valley  of  .New  Mexico 
being  secured  for  the  colony.  It  was  founded  in  1884.  but  by  1901  was  be- 
ing offered  for  sale.  The  loss  was  about  $300,000.  It  perished  for  want 
of  financial  and  moral  support. 

A     COLONY    IN     PANAMA 

From  a  copy  of  the  Llano  Colonist  published  in  1916.  we  take  the  fol- 
lowing brief  account  of  a  colony  attempted  in  Panama.  Fred  .Mutchler  vis- 
ited the  Llano  Colony  in  California  and  gave  a  short  talk  on  what  had  been 
attempted  by  him  and  others. 

".Mr.  .Mutchler  gave  a  brief  synopsis  of  the  co-operative  colony  in  Pana- 
ma, which  was  widely  reported  to  have  failed.     .Mr.  Mutchler  was  its  president 
and  knew  the   real  cause  ol    failure.     He  said   that    it   was   impossible   to   re- 
ceive  or   send   out    mail    without    its   being   censored.      Money    sent    from    the 
;ates  would  be  returned  to  the  sender:    letters   from  members  of  the  colonv 


66 

to  outsiders  were  opened  and  all  reference  to  the  colony  deleted;  and  all  ad- 
vertising matter  rigidly  excluded  from  the  mails.  The  colony  was  under 
strict  military  rule,  making  co-operation  impossible  among  the  thirty-five, 
members.  After  the  colony  disbanded  transportation  was  "kindly"  furnished 
to  the  members,  and  in  some  instances  jobs  given  to  some  on  the  Canal  zone. 
The  real  reason  that  the  army  did  not  want  a  colony  started  in  Panama  wa& 
because  the  zone  is  to  be  extended  ten  miles  farther,  which  would  include  the- 
colony  lands,  and  the  natural  fear  of  Socialism." 

THE     LORD'S     FARM 
(About  Twenty  Years  of  Life) 

There  have  been  many  colonies  which  have  appeared  utterly  fantastic, 
but  none  of  them  are  surpassed  by  "The  Lord's  Farm"  in  Bergen  County, 
New  Jersey.  Yet  it  compels  admiration;  for,  however  impractical  it  may  ap- 
pear to  have  been  from  the  account  from  which  the  facts  herein  given  are 
taken,  yet  the  sincerity  and  the  earnestness  and  the  remarkable  fortitude  and 
extraordinary  non-resistant  policy  of  "Paul"  makes  it  worthy  of  space  all  out 
of  proportion  to  its  economic  value.  We  are  indebted  to  a  reprint  from  TTifr 
Open  Court  of  October,  1919,  entitled  "Anarchism  and  the  Lord's  Farm'*" 
by  Theodore  Schroeder  for  the  information  used  here. 

"In  the  old  life  of  sin-in-the-flesh  he  had  another  name.  Now  he  lives  in 
the  spiritual  rebirth.  When  the  divinity  within  him  came  to  rule  his  life,  he- 
was  rechristened  as  Paul  Blaudin  Mnason.  Some  hailed  him  the  New  Christ, 
and  others  reviled  him  as  the  Anti-Christ.  Scoffers  called  him  'the  boss  of 
the  Angel  Dancers.'  When  I  told  him  that  I  was  going  to  write  about  him  un- 
der the  title  of  'Anarchism  at  the  Lord's  Farm,'  he  almost  lost  his  spiritual 
poise  in  protest  against  being  identified  with  anarchists.  And  yet  he  lived 
the  life  of  Anarchism  without  professmg  or  even  knowing  its  doctrines.  When 
the  more  conscious  anarchists  claimed  him,  he  hated  them  probably  because 
they  professed  the  doctrine  without  the  life.  And  yet  for  twenty  years,  he 
with  others,  worked  out  an  experiment  at  living  the  life  of  the  anarchist-com- 


jnunist 


*  V  ^ 


"When  this  latter-day  Paul  first  acknowledged  the  supreme  authority  of 
the  'divinity'  within  him  ^  ^  ^  he  went  among  those  who  advertised  their  lib- 
erality as  well  as  those  of  conspicuous  orthodoxy.  Everywhere  he  met  with 
more  or  less  violent  hostility.  The  'liberals'  denied  him  free  speech  because 
he  was  a  'nut.'  The  orthodox  called  the  police  or  threw  him  out  of  their 
places  of  worship,  because  'they  could  not  bear  the  closer,  purer  light  from  this 
son  of  God.'  ^'  ''^  ^  Later  on  by  virtue  of  the  'divinity  within  him'  the  latter- 
day  Paul  cured  a  very  sick  maiden  of  'an  incurable  disease.'  Thru  this 
miracle  the  way  was  opened,  'the  Lord's  Farm'  was  established,  and  there 
Christian  liberty  reigned  supreme.  At  the  Lord's  Farm  unconscious  anarchists 
or  conscious  Christian  communists,  established  a  Utopia,  a  miniature   edition 


67 

of  heaven  upon  earth.     Here  many  of  the  dcs|)iscd  of  the  woild  found  spiritual 
and  economic   regeneration. 

"In  the  kingdom  of  Heaven  there  could  be  no  private  property,  nor  .^ny 
privileges  but  the  privilege  of  service.  Paul  refused  a  deed  to  the  Lord  u 
Farm  because  it  im|)lied  too  much  ov^nership.  tven  a  mere  formal  lease 
from  sister  Blaudina  was  a  bad  compromise  between  the  godly  ideal  and  the 
human  way  of  doing  things.  A  lease  was  taken,  however,  but  that  did  not 
^ive  any  one  within  the  sacred  precincts  greater  liberty  or  authority  than  was 
enjoyed  by  any  of  the  rest.  Blaudina  was  not  the  name  her  parents  sjave  her. 
By  this  new  name  she  symbolized  the  fact  that  she  had  been  physically  and 
spiritually  reborn.  The  godless  called  her  the  'beautiful  little  angel  dancer 
ot  the  Lord's  Farm.'  No  books  of  account  were  kept  at  the  Lord's  Farm.  In 
'iiie  kingdom  of  God  no  record  of  material  things  could  be  preserved.  ■*  "^  '■' 

"To  combine  practice  with  profession  is  a  constant  reproach  to  those  who% 
only  pretend,  and  these  are  always  resentful.  So  friction  arose  bclwceri 
the  Lord's  Farmers  and  their  materially-minded,  spiritually-pretentious  neigh- 
bors. Reviling  was  followed  by  persecution.  '•'  ^  ■''  Mobs  cut  Paul's  hair 
and  pulled  his  whiskers.  This  was  followed  by  arrests  for  Sabbath  break- 
ing and  blasphemy;  conspiracy  to  defraud,  and  running  a  disorderly  house; 
kidnapping  and  raping  and  almost  everythnig  else  in  the  criminal  coa  \  Con- 
victions were  actually  secured  against  Paul  for  the  blasphemy  of  allowing^ 
himself  to  be  adored  as  a  Son  of  God.  ''"'  ^  ^'  The  Lord's  Farmers  thought  that 
if  God's  law  is  to  prevail,  human  laws  must  be  ignored  and  lawyers  should 
not  be  employed  in  the  defense  of  God's  own.  Turn  the  other  cheek,  vas  the 
rule.  *  '^  ■•'  In  some  of  these  persecutions  the  indictments  called  Paul  by  the 
name  of  Mason  T.  Huntsman.  Most  strenuously  he  repudiated  this  name.  In 
fact,  he  was  just  as  anxious  to  disown  the  name  as  were  his  relatives  and 
ramesakes  to  have  him  do  so.  Some  of  these  reside  on  Fifth  Avenue,  facing 
Central  Park  in  New  York  City. 

"Free  newspaper  advertising  followed  in  abundance  upon  prosecution. 
Publicity  brought  all  those  whom  the  world  calls  'cranks,'  all  those  wiio  have 
theories  of  superiority  with  which  to  explain  their  status  as  the  world's  misfits. 
The  Jew,  the  Chinaman,  the  Christian  Scientist,  and  the  Papist,  the  Methou'st 
and  the  New  Thoughter,  the  Swami.  and  the  Christian  clergyman,  spiritualists, 
theosophists,  atheists,  anarchists,  and  socialists — all  these  came  and  prayed  or 
cursed,  worshiped,  or  persecuted,  soothed  or  quarreled,  according  to  various 
understanding  and  temperament.  They  came  and  went  as  they  pleased.  Som 
stayed  for  hours,  some  for  days,  and  a  few  for  years.  During  18  year^ 
the  Lord's  Farm  fed  three  thousand  persons.  Some  were  cleansed  in  body 
and  some  in  soul.  Many  were  restored  to  self-respect  and  social  usefulness. 
All  this  was  done  without  asking  any  questions  or  imposing  any  conditions  ^-  •='. 
From  each  according  lo  his  ability,  to  each  according  to  his  needs  ■"'  '"*'  '^." 
But  this  brought  some  strange  characters,  and  not  all  of  them  came  for 


68 

the  good  of  the  community,  according  to  Mr.  Schrceder's  Hvely  account.  He 
mentions  one  Daniel  Haines,  who  he  beheves  was  shghtly  demented.  DanieF 
claimed  he  had  the  Holy  Ghost  in  large  quantity  and  that  it  challenged  the 
righteousness  of  Paul.  He  took  the  hinges  off  the  doors  so  'h?c  ti^e  people 
outside  might  hear  the  disputes  within.  He  tried  to  discredit  Paul  and  his 
faithful  band,  and  shouted  aloud  his  intent.  On  one  occasion  Daniel  <=;rap- 
pled  with  Paul,  but  the  sturdy  Paul  put  the  obstreperous  one  down,  then  re- 
leased him  and  asked  "What  next?"  Failing  in  his  physical  force,  Daniel 
broke  all  of  the  dishes,  suffering  no  rebuke  and  no  objections;  the  others 
merely  looked  on.  At  this  thrilling  juncture  the  police  came  and  arrested  all 
of  those  at  Lord's  Farm,  though  the  reason  had  nothing  to  do  with  the  startling 
proceedings  which  confronted  their  astonished  eyes.  The  charge  v.Oo  con- 
spiracy to  defraud  the  owners  of  the  farm.  Dishes  were  taken  as  evidence,, 
however,  of  a  disorderly  house.  Nothing  came  of  the  charge,  tho  they  re- 
mained in  jail  for  six  months.  They  were,  however,  convicted  on  a  charge 
of  conducting  a  disorderly  house  because  ^of  the  breaking  of  the  dishes.  Paul 
and  Phoebe  were  sentenced  to  state's  prison,  but  Daniel  was  released.  Later 
all  were  reunited  and  all  forgiven.  Then  Daniel  took  a  horse  and  wagon,  say- 
ing that  aj6  all  things  were  free  at  Lord's  Farm,  he  chose  the  horse  and  wa- 
gon. No  opposition  was  interposed,  but  a  few  days  later  a  farmer  returned 
the  horse  and  wagon,  having  found  them  abandoned  on  the  road. 

Charles  Hammond,  infidel,  was  drawn  out  of  curiosity,  and  tho  he  did 
not  espouse  the  religion  of  the  Lord's  Farmers,  he  stayed  for  many  months 
and  was  one  of  their  best  workers,  adopting  their  manner  of  living.  .At  the 
same  time,  came  one  Louis,  fanatically  religious,  with  a  call  to  preach,  but 
no  call  to  work.  Chavles  the  non-religious,  objected  strenuously  to  having  to 
support  Louis  the  religious.  He  reported  to  Paul,  but  the  latter  would  do 
nothing.  Charles  struck  Paul,  but  the  latter  merely  asked:  "Have  you  fin- 
ished, Charles?  If  not,  don't  stop."  But  Charles  was  ashamed  and  did  noth- 
ing more  in  abusing  Paul,  returning  to  work  after  being  thiis  quietly  rebuked. 

Many  hoboes  came,  and  the  neighbors  complained,  probably  with  good 
cause,  that  the  Lord's  Farm  was  a  magnet  which  drew  more  hoboes  into 
the  neighborhood  than  they  were  entitled  to.  All  were  made  welcome  with- 
out question  or  examination,  physical  or  otherwise.  One  of  them  was  so 
pleased  with  this  that  he  stayed,  and  asked  that  his  breakfast  be  served  in  the 
afternoon,  as  he  did  not  like  to  get  up  early.  One  day  Paul  took  the  man's 
breakfast  to  his  room,  explaining  that  they  did  not  want  to  put  him  to  the  in- 
convenience of  having  to  go  downstairs,  and  assuring  him  they  wished  him 
to  be  happy.  But  this  cured  the  hobo,  who  never  again  remained  in  bed 
after  the  usual  breakfast  time,  and  who  became  a  fair  worker.  Paul's  method 
of  getting  the  lazy  to  work  was  to  assure  them  that  they  should  not  work 
SG  long  as  they  could  be  happy  in  idleness. 

A   fanatically   religious   woman   with   some  Eve-like   ideas   came   and   be- 


69 
^an  pursuing  Paul,  whom  she  said  was  Adam.  But  Paul  evaded  the  woman, 
vho  insisted  in  running  true  to  Edsn  costumes  as  well  as  customs  and  re- 
duced her  clothing  at  times  to  about  fig-leaf  proportions,  or  less.  Paul 
avoided  any  embarrassing  relations  with  the  woman,  and  finally  a  certain  an- 
gelic Granville  with  Adam-like  notions  appeared.  The  neighbors  were  appall- 
ed at  the  actions  of  the  couple  and  said  that  their  spiritual  freedom  went  far 
in  excess  of  what  was  usually  understood  to  be  spiritual  and  partook  very 
strongly  of  what  might  be  understood  by  the  ungodly  as  sexual  license.  How- 
ever. Granville  soon  decided  to  establish  a  kingdom  in  Philadelphia  and  fnially 
%\'ent   to  that   populous   center. 

A  certain  Willson  from  England  tried  to  supplant  Paul,  and  gave  him 
territle  tongue-lashings,  to  which  the  unperturbed  Paul  replied:  "That's  fine. 
Now  can't  you  tell  me  something  new  about  myself?"  And  finally  Willson 
withdrew,    defeated    by    the    submissive    non-resistance    of    Paul. 

VThe  free  publicity  given  to  the  communistic  aspect  of  the  Lord's  Farm." 
continues  Schroecer,  "served  as  a  lure  for  irreligious  socialists  and  anarch- 
ist doctrinaires.  These  came  with  their  rule  of  thumb  to  prove  to  Paul  that 
he  was  not  consistent  with  Marx.  Mme.  Bakunin.  or  Tucker,  or  someone  else. 
Paul  knew  nothing  of  these  strange  unscriptural  doctrines  and  he  cared  less. 
He  was  concerned  only  with  living  the  divine  life.  He  would  tell  these  crit- 
ics that  they  were  only  intellectual  garbage  cans  peddling  the  dead  and  de- 
caying material  of  other  minds;  fooling  themselves  by  thinking  that  this 
rotten  doctrine-stuff  could  upset  the  ways  and  work  of  God,  or  that  God 
could  or  would  descend  to  the  ways  of  men.  Others  he  would  advise  to  hang 
crape  on  their  noses  in  memory  of  their  dead  brains." 

Alice  Page  came  for  treatment — mental,  spiritual,  and  physical.  But 
at  about  the  same  time,  five  holy  rollers  also  came,  and  they  kept  the  place 
in  such  pandemonium  that  .Alice  could  not  rest.  Neither  could  the  neighbors, 
>vho  loudly  voiced  their  complaints;  Paul  was  probably  also  growing  imjiatient 
with  the  antics  of  the  invaders.  One  of  these  exasperated  neighbors,  a  lawyer, 
protested.  Paul  told  him  the  people  on  "Lord's  Farm"  had  all  rights  and  free- 
dom, and  he  would  do  nothing.  He  added,  however:  "Here  all  are  free:  you 
may  do  as  you  please,  even  as  they  are  free."  The  astute  lawyer  took  this 
as  a  hint  and  acted  as  his  new-found  freedom  permitted,  which  was  to  accel- 
erate the  leaving  of  the  shouters  by  using  the  toe  of  his  shoe  in  an  energetic 
and  \igorous  manner.     Paul  did   not   interfere. 

But  Paul  was  not  proof  against  all  exasperations.  One  of  the  Lord"- 
Farmers  had  an  adopted  son.  and  used  the  slick  to  coerce  the  little  fellow  lo 
work.  Paul  stood  it  as  long  as  he  could,  till  finally  his  temi>er  broke  the 
leash  which  had  held  it  so  long  and  he  used  a  club  on  the  man  who  had  whip- 
ped the  boy.  Unfortunately  for  the  Lord's  Farm,  this  man  was  owner  ot 
the  land,  and  he  at  once  started  proceedings  to  oust   Paul,  succeeding  in   a 


70 

short  time. 

The  value  of  the  Lord's  Farm  experiment  may  not  be  great,  and  it  is 
somewhat  in  line  with  the  experiment  made  by  Gerald  Geraldson  in  his  Army 
-of  Industry  at  Auburn,  California.  Yet  they  show  the  tenacity  of  life 
possible  under  conditions  which  seem  to  most  people  to  contain  the  seeds  of 
•dissolution  in  their  very  inception.  The  strange  thing  is  that  they  exist  so 
long,  when  colonies  much  better  prepared,  apparently,  to  face  the  world's 
problems  as  they  contact  colonies,  do  not  exhibit  anything  like  the  same  abil- 
ity for  solidity  and  life.  Schroeder  comments.  "^  *  *  they  were  exces- 
sively exploited  and  martyrized  without  making  any  lasting  contribution  to  the 
triumph  of  their  dominant  desires,  that  is,  of  democracy,  or  liberty,  or  of 
their  concept  of  religion."  And  he  concludes  that  "their  desires  were  too 
far  ahead  of  their  time  '^  ^  ^'  and  their  understanding  of  human  behavior  was 
-very  inadequate." 


NEVADA    COLONY 

1916—1918 

One  of  the  most  extensively  advertised  community  colonization  projects 
•of  the  last  two  decades  was  the  Nevada  Colony,  located  at  Fallon,  Nevada. 
It  was  established  in  May,  1916,  by  C.  V.  Eggleston  and  others,  and  finished 
its  career  in  a  tragic  manner  in  the  summer  of  1918. 

Eggleston  had  acted  as  fiscal  agent  for  the  Llano  Co-operative  Colony 
of  Llano,  California,  in  1915  and  part  of  1916.  He  brought  to  the  Llano 
enterprise  the  methods  of  the  stock  promoter;  and,  though  he  came  with  a 
reputation  as  a  life-long  Socialist,  his  manner  of  selling  memberships  was  not 
satisfactory  to  the  Llano  colonists,  and  early  in  1916  his  connection  was 
severed.  Eggleston  had  meanwhile  gained  a  somewhat  meager  knowledge  of 
community  life,  and  a  quite  complete  list  of  names  of  prospective  members. 
Thus  equipped,  he  instituted  the  Nevada  Coloiy.  For  a  time  this  was  link- 
ed with  the  Llano  Colony,  but  th^  separation  was  made   early  in    1916. 

Eggleston  was  successful  in  securing  the  right  to  use  the  names  of  men 
prominent  in  the  Socialist  movement,  and  he  traded  on  their  names  vig- 
orously. Some  of  these  claimed  that  he  used  their  names  without  authority, 
•and  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  they  are  correct  in  this  statement.  Fred 
D.  Warren  and  "Baldy"  Richardson  lent  their  names  willingly,  but  many  oth- 
ers were  used.  Thousands  of  persons  had  much  faith  in  these  prominent 
Socialists,  and  a  great  spurt  was  thus  given  to  the  securing  of  memberships 
and  the  accompanying  cash  which  floated  the  enterprise  and  financed  it. 

The  Llano  Colony  repudiated  its  connection  with  the  Nevada  Colony 
in  every  way  it  could  and  was  at  considerable  expense  to  make  this  clear. 
That  Eggleston  had  been  for  a  number  of  months  connected  with  the  former. 


71 

and  because  the  headquarters  of  the  Llano  Colony  were  in  Reno,  much 
confusion  resulted. 

The  location  was  a  good  one.  The  Lahonton  dam  im|)ounded  a  vast 
quantity  of  water  for  irrigation  and  the  lands  were  well  irrigated.  A  good 
variety  of  crops  could  be  grown.  The  weakness  of  the  situation  was  that 
the  lands  of  the  colony  were  not  contiguous,  and  that  they  were  not  owned 
by  the  colony.  There  was  loss  of  time  and  effort  and  interest  because  of 
these  facts.  However,  there  was  probably  sufficient  grounds  for  believing 
in  the  success  of  the  venture  had  there  not  been  other  and  more  serious 
causes  for  failure. 

One  of  the  most  dangerous  of  these  was  the  bargain-counter  member- 
ship rates.  A  campaign  was  put  on  to  sell  memberships  and  jjermil  residence 
on  the  payment  of  $250.  To  spur  prospective  members  to  action,  a  time 
limit  was  placed  on  the  low-priced  offer.  The  result  was  to  bring  in  a 
quick  flow  of  cash,  but  the  quality  of  members  was  not  given  attention.  What 
resulted  was  an  influx  of  persons,  many  of  whom  had  but  vague  and  indef- 
inite ideas  of  the  conditions  of  colony  life.  They,  in  many  cases,  were  in- 
fluenced chiefly  by  the  hojje  of  bettering  their  material  conditions,  and  gave 
considerably  less  thought  to  the  principles  underlying  co-of)erative  commun- 
ities. 

The  plan  of  the  organization  was  that  of  a  stock  corporation.  It  was 
modeled  in  most  respects  after  the  Llano  Colony,  and  some  who  had  been  in 
Llano  went  to  the  Nevada  colony,  tho  not  many. 

Trouble  reached  an  acute  stage  in  December,  when  a  circular  was  issued 
under  the  title  "Nevada  Colony  Corporation  a  Fake."  J.  H.  Barkley  and 
others  subscribmg  sworn  statements.  Some  of  these  were  members,  some  ex- 
members.  It  accused  Eggleston  of  being  a  Czar,  of  summarily  cancelling 
contracts  of  W.  G.  Barker  and  family  and  others,  and  advising  that  the  colony 
did  not  have  the  enterprises  and  institutions  which  its  literature  and  its  organ. 
"The  .Nevada  Colonist,"  advertised.  The  statement  stipulated  in  detail  that 
the  Nevada  Colony  had  "no  hotel,  no  mattress  factory,  no  ink  factory,  no 
grocery  or  dry  goods  store,  no  cabinet  factory,  no  movie  picture  show,  no 
blueing  factory,  no  tannery  *  ^  ^'.  Their  only  means  of  living  is  the  money 
corning  in  from  new  members  joining  the  colony."  The  circular  also  charged 
C.  V.  Eggleston  with  getting  $250  from  each  $1000  paid  in.  that  the  colony 
had  one  motor  truck,  mortgaged  for  $1400.  instead  of  the  seven  advertis- 
ed. Tht  sworn  p>ortion  of  the  circular  claimed  that  all  the  property  of  the 
colony  was  mortgaged  to  its  full  value. 

In  the  March  issue  of  "The  Nevada  Colonist."  Eggleston  replied  to 
the  circular,  saying  that  those  responsible  for  the  circular  performed  hftle  or 
no  uje'^ul  labor,  but  spent  their  time  trying  to  disrupt  the  colony,  lesulting  in 
their  being  discharged.  Eggleston  made  the  statement  that  one  of  the  mal- 
contents had  traded  property  for  his  stock,  but  refused  to  trade  back  except 


72 

on  conditions  causing  a  loss  to  the  man  with  whom  he  had  traded.  Eggles- 
ton  cl?.imed  that  the  equipment  for  the  factories  and  institutions  referred 
to  in  the  circular  were  purchased  and  were  stored  ready  to  be  operated. 
Eggleston  also  made  the  statement  in  his  defense  that  the  colony  shipped  in 
June,  1916,  a  carload  of  hogs,  that  in  January  of  1917  a  car  of  hogs  and 
cattle;  that  the  previous  November  800  pounds  of  turkeys  at  28  cents  a 
.  pound  had  been  sold,  that  in  about  9  months  $1500  worth  of  cream  had  been 
marketed,  and  that  the  production  of  alfalfa  at  market  prices  amounted  to 
$15,000. 

In  the  same  issue  of  the  paper  was  a  report  of  a  stockholders'  investi- 
gation committee  which  showed  that  the  colony  had  title  to  1640  acres  of 
land. 

The  Nevada  Colonist  also  claimed  that  95  per  cent  of  all  who  came  and 
investigated  became  members  if  they  were  financially  able  to  do  so. 

A  visitor  writing  in  the  same  paper  under  date  of  January  17,  1917, 
reported  that  he  found  thirty  men  and  fifty  women  and  children,  1600  acres 
of  land,  with  400  of  it  in  alfalfa,  73  milch  cows,  both  Jerseys  and  Holsteins 
in  the  herd,  70  horses,  two  registered  bulls  and  two  registered  stallions  includ- 
ed; 800  thoroughbred  white  leghorn  hens  and  40  hen  turkeys.  The  man 
who  wrote  it  was  R.  E.  Bray,  later  to  become  very  prominent  in  the  affairs 
of  the  colony. 

In  answer  to  questions  submitted  to  him,  E.  C.  Bennett,  later  a  member 
of  the   Llano  Co-operative   Colony  in   Louisiana,   wrote: 

"Eggleston  was  painted  by  R.  E.  Bray,  who  was  as  bad,  as  being  the 
greatest  thief  of  all  time.  He  got  big  commissions  for  selling  stock  and 
made  money  from  the  project.  When  the  crash  came,  the  colony  had  about 
30  beautiful  adobe  houses  and  had  done  some  leveling  on  the  land. 

"Th.ere  was  no  social  life  while  I  was  there  (Sept.  16,  1917  to  March 
11,  1918)  except  the  weekly  meeting,  usually  Sunday,  for  debating  and 
voting.  There  were  no  educational  facilities.  Neighbors  viewed  the  colony 
with  suspicion  and  hostility,  some  withdrawing  what  they  had  put  into  it.  I 
was  much  impressed  by  the  false  notion  held  by  many  that  they  came  in 
to  live  bef.er  than  they  had  outside,  and  finally  the  hatred  which  was  mani- 
fested. The  colonists  acted  exceedingly  comradely  toward  each  other'  at 
first.  Then  came  the  quarrel  which  became  more  bitter  up  to  the  time  I 
left.  When  it  became  known  outside  that  the  colony  was  divided  over  gov- 
ernment, money  stopped  coming.  As  nothing  was  being  sold,  necessaries  could 
no  longer  be  bought;  hence,  the  end.  There  were  no  industries,  and  all  in- 
come was  derived  from  the  sale  of  memberships  and  from  loans.  The  activ- 
ities consisted  of  growing  wheat,  white  potatoes,  garden  truck,  alfalfa,  etc., 
and  in  making  adobe  brick  and  in  putting  up  buildings.  There  were  about 
125  persons  when  I  went  there,  and  150  when  I  left.  I  think  this  is  the 
greatest   population   ever   attained. 


73 

"I  think  success  would  liave  been  possible  if  (he  colony  had  owned  the 
land.  But  the  lack  of  ownership,  the  debts,  and  the  want  of  natural  resources 
combined  to  make  failure  probable.  The  immediate  caussi  were  the  big 
families,  rather  high  standard  of  living,  and  the  final  split  into  factions.  The 
quarrel  arose  immediately  after  the  director's  meeting  ni  Oclof>er.  1917.  R. 
E.  Bray  held  proxies  so  that  he  elected  the  whole  board.  The  quarrel  which 
followed  became  one  between  'intellectuals'  and  'laborers.*  Bray  claims 
the  credit  of  having  ex|)elled  Kggleston  from  the  colony,  but  he  seems  to 
have  had  but  little  l>etter  idea  than  Eggleston  as  to  the  fundamentals  neces- 
sary to  community  success." 

In  1918  members  began  taking  up  mineral  lands,  and  many  of  them 
left  the  colony  lor  this  purpose,  though  they  may  not  have  severed  their  con- 
nection. The  war  took  some  of  the  men.  and  intensified  the  problems  that 
confronted  the  group.  No  money  was  coming.  The  failure  which  had  been 
immment  for  many  months  and  freely  prophesied,  followed  in  the  summer 
of  |9|8.  one  woman  committnig  suicide  in  her  discouragement.  Bennett  says 
that  bloocshed  was  narrowly  averted  on  a  number  of  occasions  when  passions 
were  inflamed.  .Another  authority  tells  of  a  draftee  resisting  officers,  hid- 
ing in  the  hills,  being  furnished  food,  presumably  by  the  colonists,  and  kill- 
ing the  officer  who  came  to  arrest  him.  This  resulted  in  high  feeling  against 
the  colonists,  many  of  whom  were  probably  entirely  ignorant  of  the  entire 
affair. 

The  Nevada  Colony  can  be  analyzed  as  an  abortive  effort  to  establish 
a  Community  without  sufficient  funds,  without  a  good  foundation,  and  by 
persons  with  only  the  most  meager  knowledge  of  the  technique  required. 
Eggleston  used  the  intensive  methods  of  modern  business  and  was  accused 
repeatedly,  both  in  Llano  and  in  the  Nevada  colonies,  of  being  unscrupulous 
in  his  methods  of  securing  money.  However  this  may  be.  he  had  little 
conception  of  the  real  problems,  and  those  he  attracted  were  materialists, 
attracted  chiefly  because  they  expected  to  better  themselves.  They  were 
impatient,  quarrelsome,  fault-finding,  and  very  lacking  in  the  ideals  neces- 
sary to  the  enterprise  in  which  they  had  enlisted.  Notwithstanding  a  quite 
definite  understanding  of  the  Marxian  philosophy  and  the  theory  of  econ- 
omic determinism,  they  had  very  little  of  the  real  understanding  of  the  hu- 
manitarism  necessary  to  success  where  all  residents  constitute  a  family.  Their 
failure  was  foreshadowed  by  this  lack  of  real  idealism;  no  mere  material 
successes  could  have  made  up  for  its  lack,  and  the  hardships  due  to  lack 
of  incoming  funds  merely  hastened  what  would  have  probably  come  about 
sooner  or  later  anyway. 

It  is  apparent  to  many  that  the  Nevada  Colony  was  to  its  originator.  C. 
\'.  Eggleston.  merely  a  business  enterprise  and  he  brought  to  bear  on  it  all 
of  his  training  as  a  salesman  and  a  business  man.  But  this  attempt  to  com- 
mercialize the  ideals  and  ho]>es  of  humanity,  this  attempt  to  establish  a  Com- 


74 

munity  of  persons  unskilled  in  the  ways  of  business  and  opposed  on  princi- 
ple to  commercialism,  putting  their  structure  on  a  foundation  of  intense 
commercialism,  was  trying  to  do  the  impossible. 

Many  of  those  who  went  into  the  Nevada  Colony  were  idealists,  but 
many  were  bargain  seekers,  and  their  purposes  were  not  based  on  idealism 
but  on  their  own  hopes  and  ambitions  and  selfish  desires;  they  brought  in 
with  them  traits  which  defeated  their  own  hopes  and  purposes. 


Communities 
of  the  Present 


THE    SHAKER    COMMIMTIES 

1776   to    Present   Time 

Some  members  of  the  Society  of  Quakers  formed  themselves  into  a 
group  of  which  Jane  and  James  Wardley  were  leaders,  holding  meetings  of 
a  spiritualistic  nature.  This  was  in  1747.  The  members  were  often  seized 
in  their  meetings  with  a  mighty  trembling;  at  other  times  they  sang  their 
songs  of  praise,  shouting  and  leaping  for  joy;  sometimes  they  would  be  com- 
pelled to  shake  their  limbs  or  run  or  walk,  "with  a  variety  of  other  opera- 
tions or  signs,  swiftly  passing  and  repassing  each  other."  Because  of  these 
strange  exercises  they  were  called  Shakers.  They  were  persecuted,  and  this 
brought  them  new  members.  Ann  Lee  joined  them,  and  in  1770  professed, 
\\hile  in  prison,  to  having  had  a  great   revelation  of  Christ's  Kingdom. 

in  1776  Mother  Ann.  as  Ann  Lee  came  to  be  called,  started  a  settlement 
Rt  Niskayuna.  New  ^  ork,  seven  miles  from  Albany.  Their  fame  spread,  and 
soon  mawy  joined  them.  Persecution  again  followed  and  many  were  im- 
prisoned. 

The  rules  governing  the  admission  of  members  into  Shaker  Societies 
were: 

I — All  persons  uniting  with  the  Shaker  Society,  in  any  degree,  must  do 
It  freely  and  voluntarily,  according  to  their  own  faith  and  unbiased  judg- 
ment. 

2 — In  the  testimony  of  the  Society,  both  public  and  private,  no  flattery 
or  any  undue  influence  is  used. 

3 — No  considerations  of  property  are  ever  made  use  of  by  this  Society 
tc  induce  any  person  to  join  it.  nor  to  prevent  any  person   from  leaving  it. 
4 — Any  person  becoming  a  member  must  rectify  all  his  wrongs  and  as 
fast  and  as  far  as  possible  discharge  all  just  and  legal  claims. 

5 — It  is  an  established  principle  in  the  Society  that  children  who  are 
faithful  and  obedient  to  their  parents  until  they  became  of  age  are  justly  en- 
titled to  their  equal  portion  of  the  estate  of  their  parents,  whether  they 
continue  with  the  Society  or  not. 

The  government  was  simple.  Tliere  were  several  Ministeries.  each  con- 
sisting when  fully  organized  of  two  brethren  and  two  sisters,  and  each  hav- 
irg  special  supervision  of  two  or  most  Societies.  Subordinate  to  the  Minis- 
tries there  are  in  every  fully  organized  community,  or  family  in  each  society, 
two  elders  and  two  elderesses,  having  special  charge  of  its  spiritual  affairs, 
and  two  Deacons  and  two  Deaconesses  having  charge  of  temporal  affairs, 
these  latter  being  subordinate  to  the  Elders  and  Elderesses  as  they  are  in  turn 
to  the  Ministry.  The  Deacons  may  be  specially  appointed  as  acting  trustees 
to  hold  titles  to  the  property  of  the  family  to  which  they  belong  and  to  man- 


76 

age  its  businesses. 

In  Shaker  communities  the  women  have  equal  rank  with  the  men,  fre- 
quently holding  superior  offices  and  managing   their  own  departments  fully. 

A  requirement  of  Shaker  communities  is  that  all  must  labor  a  certain 
number  of  hours  daily  and  must  subordinate  their  own  wishes  respecting 
choice  of  industries  to  the  general  interest  of  the  Society  as  expressed  thru  its 
officers.  Early  Shakers  lived  rigid  lives  from  which  all  beauty  was  eliminated, 
but  in  later  years  music  and  flowers  were  not  only  permitted  but  to  some 
degree  encouraged,  and  the  austerity  of  their  lives  has  been  greatly  modified. 
Pictures  of  individual  members  were  prohibited  because  of  the  tendency 
to  idolatry,  the  liability  of  causing  personal  vanity,  and  the  consequent 
disunity  which  might  result  from  preference  given  to  individuals  thus  noticed. 

In  the  matter  of  diet,  many  of  the  Societies  of  the  Shakers  were  quite 
advanced,  and,  as  a  result  of  this  progress,  together  with  hygienic  wisdom, 
sickness  was  almost  entirely  eliminated  from  among  them.  Pork  was  nol 
used  for  food,  and  many  used  no  meat  whatever.     Liquors  were  never  used. 

The  Shakers  have  had  to  dep)end  for  their  new  members  largely  upon 
the  unfortunates  who  flock  to  them  for  homes  when  they  find  the  struggle 
for  existence  too  hard,  and  upon  orphans  and  the  children  of  poor  people. ' 
Despite  what  might  seem  to  have  been  poor  material  with  which  to  work, 
the  Shakers  have  developed  able  thinkers,  writers,  speakers,  and  men  of 
marked  business  capacity.  They  are  credited  with  a  long  list  of  useful  in- 
ventions, among  them  being  a  mower  and  reaper,  a  circular  saw,  a  prlnt- 
ilig  press,  a  planing  machine,  a  tongue-and  groove  machine,  a  revolving 
harrow,  a  pea-sheller,  cut  nails,  metallic  pen,  etc. 

The  form  of  government  was  theocratic  rather  than  democratic,  and 
Mr.  Hinds,  in  commenting  on  it,  asks  the  question  whether  it  is  not  "wisest 
to  so  conduct  affairs  that  every  one  shall  feel,  not  only  that  he  is  personally 
interested  m  the  general  prosperity,  but  that  he  contributes  to  it  according 
to  the  measure  of  his  ability." 

The  Shakers  were  celibates  and  had  a  total  of  fifteen  societies  with  a 
membership  at  one  time  of  5000  persons,  with  twenty-one  different  Shaker 
communities,  the  largest  being  Mount  Lebanon,  New  York.  They  owned 
large  farms  and  a  very  large  acreage  of  land,  which  they  have  been  selling 
of  late  years.     Their  membership  is  now  quite  small.. 

"The  Shakers  themselves  are  persuaded,"  says  Mr.  Hinds  in  "Amer- 
ican Communities,"  "that  the  celibate  condition  is  superior  to  any  other, 
and  raises  them  above  the  worldly  or  generative  place.  That  every  human 
passion  may  be  exercised  in  the  spirit  of  purity  they  have  not  yet  learned, 
and  we  must  respect  their  earnest  efforts  to  separate  themselves  from  every 
fleshly  temptation  that  they  may  lead  sinless  lives.  They  do  not  wholly 
condemn  marriage,  as  many  suppose;  but,  on  the  contrary,  they  admit  that 
it  is  a  natural  and  proper  relation   for  those  who  have  not  been  called  to 


17 
the  higher  or  resurrection  order." 

They  welcomed  scientific  propagation  of  the  human  race,  and  Jamea 
S.  Prescott  is  quoted  as  saying:  "What  is  the  reason  man  does  not  know 
how  to  improve  the  race  as  well  as  he  knows  how  to  improve  the  ox,  the 
sheep,  the  horse,  and  the  feathered  tribes?  He  does  know  how;  it  it  by 
observing  the  same  law.  workiiin  by  the  same  lulr.  and  minding  the  same 
things.  *  *  *  As  things  arc.  multitudes  of  |>ersoiis  of  both  sexes  are  no  more 
^ul<ablc  to  reproduce  human  beings  in  the  image  of  God  than  the  roach- 
backed,  crooked-legged,  spindle-shanked,  slab-sided  Indian  ponies  are  suitable 
for  generaMn^j  the  brst   ly|>es  of  the   noble   horse." 

Of  the  many  thousands  of  children  placed  in  the  Societies  for  one  cause 
and  another,  very  few  remained  after  reaching  years  of  maturity,  or  devel- 
oped other  than  ignoble  traits  of  character.  One  meml>er  is  (|uoted  as  say- 
ing: "Since  I  came  here  forty-nine  years  ago.  we  have  taken  in  young  peo- 
ple enough  to  make  a  continuous  line  half  a  mile  long,  and  I  alone  remain." 
Another  said:  "Out  of  eighty  boys  that  went  to  school  in  the  course  of  five 
winters,  not   one  beside  myself  remained  till   he  was  20  years  old." 

The  hygienic  conditions  oi  living,  perhaps  more  than  celibacy,  contrib- 
uted to  the  long  life  of  the  Shakers.  A  list  of  aged  persons  from  two  so- 
cieties shows  remarkably  long  lives.     Hinds  gives  it     as  follows: 

12  members  died  at  90  •  3  members  died  at  97 

12  members  died  at  92  I   member  died  at  9tt 

8  members  died  at  91  I    member   died   at   99 

5   members  died  at  93  I    member  died  at    100 

3  members  died  at  94  I    member  died  at    102 

2  members  died  at  95  I   member  died  at   108 

2  members  died  at  96  I   member  died  at    120 

The  Shakers  were  not  free  from  lawsuits,  but  the  same  decision  that 
was  given  in  other  cases  of  similar  societies  was  rendered,  and  the  society 
showed  that  its  rights  were  superior  to  those  of  individual  members,  and  its 
position  was  sustained  in  the  courts. 

Recently  the  Shakers  have  sold  much  of  their  holdings,  and  their  num- 
bers are  much  diminished.  None  of  them  are  youthful.  Modern  youth  is 
not  attracted  to  this  system  of  living,  and  celibacy  does  not  prove  alluring. 
There  may  be  other  reasons,  but  the  facts  remain  that  while  the  communism, 
the  co-operative  living  of  the  Shakers,  has  been  immensely  successful,  and 
while  they  have  amassed  wealth  which  has  been  estimated  to  run  into  ten 
or  twelve  million  dollars,  they  have  not  been  able  to  maintain  their  numbers 
and  spread  their  beliefs.  Their  communities  have  existed  since  the  time  of 
the  Revolutionary  war,  surely  a  record  of  achievement  well  worth  consider- 
ing. 

When  George  T.  Pickett  visited  the  Shakers  early  in  1924,  he  reported 
to  the  writer  that  he  found  them  wealthy,  but  with  little  ho|>e  of  the  i>erpel- 


78 

uation  of  the  society,  because  many  were  well  along  in  years  and  few  new 
members  were  joining.  One  of  their  largest  properties,  in  New  Hampshire, 
was  untenanted.  Lack  of  interest  has  unquestionably  been  due  largely  to  the 
preference  for  celibacy  which  has  been  followed. 

A  friend  sends  a  clipping  from  a  daily  paper  published  in  Ohio  in  Sep-- 
tember,    1922,  from  which  we  take  the   following: 

There  will  be  sold  at  public  auction  next  week  at  South  Union,  Ken- 
tucky, the  lands  of  the  Shaker  Community  that  was  founded  there  in  the 
middle  of  the  last  century.  Not  many  years  ago  the  Shaker  Community  in 
the  vicinity  of  Cleveland  sold  its  lands  and  the  members  scattered  among 
other  communities  of  the  faith.  '^  *  * 

The  abandonment  of  the  Kentucky  colony  is  thought  to  mark  the  be- 
ginning of  the  end  of  Shakerism.  It  is  estimated  that  there  are  living  only 
about  200  aged  men  and  women,  followers  of  Ann  Lee,  who  made  one  of  the 
most  successful  experiments  ever  know  in  the  history  of  the  United  States. 
The  survivors  of  Shakerism  will  be  gathered  in  a  single  community  at  New 
Lebanon,  New  York.  ^  ^  -"^ 

Every  Shaker  community  was  a  great  financial  success,  and  to-day  the 
survivors  have  many  thousands  of  dollars  to  keep  them  in  comfort  as  long  as 
they  live  and  to  leave  as  a  memorial  to  their  thrift  ^  "^  *•'  Celibacy  was  a  car- 
dinal doctrine  of  Shakerism,  but  their  numbers  were  recruited  by  converts 
so  that   for  several   generations  the  sect  was  growing  and  progressive. 

The  passing  of  Shakerism  as  a  religious  and  socialistic  sect  is  not  due 
to  internal  dissension  or  financial  reverses.  The  spirit  of  the  times  has 
changed  gradually,  and  in  the  past  25  years  no  effort  has  been  made  to 
recruit  members.  So  the  membership  has  slowly  decreased.  No  one  was  ever 
detained  by  force  in  a  Shaker  community.  If  any  member  wished  to  depart 
at  any  time  and  go  back  into  the  world,  he  was  given  a  liberal  competence, 
sufficient  to  make  him  independent  for  life,  and  he  left  with  the  good  will 
of  his  associates. 

Efforts  on  the  part  of  the  author  to  get  information  from  the  head- 
quarters at  New  Lebanon  were  not  successful,  probably  as  the  Shakers 
have  never  sought  publicity  and  did  not  care  to  encourage  it. 


tjU--        ir^^*^-'^  1        W^ 


^'"' 


J'- 


\r\ 


7» 


THE    \M\\A     COM  Ml  WIT) 

Organized  1714  in  Europe;    Establiihed  in  U.  S.  in   1842;    Sti  I  in  Exiilencr 

Iwo  huiidicd  and  ten  ycar.N  lia\c  |)a>sccl  u\ci  llic  Aniana  N>ncl}.  thuuKh 
Us  New  World  coloni/ation  dates  back  only  lo  1 842.  \c{  wilh  this  respect- 
able age  of  more  than  80  years  of  continuous  growth  and  progress,  and  with 
a  prosperity  that  totals  more  than  $2,000,000  when  measured  in  dollars  for 
its  1500  inhabitants,  the  society  has  made  a  good  material  showing  and  re- 
tains a  vigor  and  vitality  that  insures  it  many  more  years.  Its  |)er  capita 
wealth  of  $1333  is  a  respectable  showing,  perhaps  more  than  many  commun> 
ities  are  able   to  show.  ^  .t-'^j 

We  are  indebted  for  this  account  of  the  Amana  Society  chiefly  t<^  The  U 
Palimpsest,    published   monthly   at    Iowa    City   by   the   State    Historical    Society 
of  Iowa,  and  much  of  the  material  is  taken  from  the  July.  1921.  issue  of  thai 
little  magazine.     Some  additional  matter  is  taken   from  the  Brief  History  of 
the  Amana  Society,  revised  and  issued  in    1918. 

In  deference  lo  the  retiring  disposition  shown  by  the  cili/ens  of  Amana. 
It  is  well  to  start  this  account  with  a  paragraph  of  a  letter  received  by  the 
compiler  of  this  volume  frcr.i  the  .Amana  5v)ciety.  a  brief  initialed  note  from 
which  we  excerpt  the  fcl' owing:  "It  has  always  been  our  |X)licy  to  avoid 
publicity  and  everythir  g  that  apjjeared  as  propaganda;  but  whenever  any- 
thing has  to  be  pub'ished.  we  prefer  lo  furnish  correct  information  rather 
than  to  see  ma'v  absurd  statements  published."  .And  ihe  informa- 
tion which  is  givrn  in  the  following  pages  has  the  approval  of  the  .Amana  So- 
ciety and  is  ir   response  to  request   for   something  authentic. 

Says  The  Palimpsest: 

"In  one  of  the  garden  spots  of  Iowa  there  is  a  charming  little  valley 
through  wh-rn  the  historic  Iowa  River  flows  peacefully  to  the  eastward.  .A 
closer  view  reveals  seven  old-fashioned  villages  nestling  among  the  trees  or 
sleeping  o'^  (he  hillsides.  About  these  seven  villages  stretch  twenty-six  thou- 
sand gocd.y  acres  clothed  with  fields  of  corn,  pastures,  meadows,  gardens, 
orchards  and  vineyards,  and  seas  of  waving  grain.  Beyond  and  above, 
surround  ,ig  the  little  valley,  are  richly  timbered  hills  forming  as  though  by 
design  £  frame  for  this  quaint  picture  of  Amana  —  the  home  of  the  Commun- 
ity of      rue   Inspiration. 

"  .nd  what  is  Amana  >  To  the  traveller,  viewing  the  fleeting  landscape 
from  the  observation  car  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  Limited,  it  is  a  singular 
cluste-  of  unpainted  houses  and  bains  amid  battalions  of  \ine-coNered  beai» 
fx)les  a  jd  blossoming  onion  tops,  surrounded  by  well-lilled  fields.  To  the 
speed^m;  motorist,  on  the  River  lo  River  Road,  bent  on  making  the  distance 
betweei.  Davenport  and  Des  Moines  in  a  day.  it  furnishes  a  curiously  delight- 
ful stopf-'ng  [)lace   for   rest  and  refreshment   and  a    {ir>\\   supply  of  gasoline. 


To- 

"To  the  villagers  themselves,  with  their  aversion  to  mixing  philosophy 
and  human  science  with  divine  wisdom,"  Amana  with  its  villages  and  gardens^ 
its  orchards  and  vineyards,  its  mills  and  factories,  its  rich  harvest  fields  and' 
wooded  hills,  and  its  abiding  peace  and  cheerfulness  is  the  visible  expression 
of  the  Lord's  will:  to  them  the  establishment  of  villages,  the  growth  and  de~ 
velopment  of  industries,  and  the  success  of  communism  are  all  incidental  to. 
the  life  and  thought  of  the  Community  whose  chief  concern  is  spiritual. 
Born  of  religious  enthusiasm  and  disciplined  by  persecution,  it  has  ever  re- 
mained primarily  a  Church.  And  so  the  real  Amana  is  Amana  the  ChurcK 
—  Amana,  the   Community  of  True   Inspiration. 

"In  language,  in  manners,  in  dress,  in  traditions,  as  well  as  in  religious 
and  economic  institutions,  the  Community  of  True  Inspiration  is  foreign  ta 
its  surroundings  —  so  much  so  that  the  visitor  is  at  once  impressed  with 
the  fact  that  here  <is  something  different  from  the  surrounding  world.  In  the 
eighteenth  century  the  Inspirationists  paid  the  penalty  in  the  Old  World 
for  their  non-conformity  to  established  customs  by  imprisonment  and  exile: 
in  the  twentieth  century  they  are  objects  of  curiosity  to  their  neighbors  and 
the  subject  of  no  little  speculation.  The  Inspirationist  is  by  nature  and  by- 
discipline  given  to  attending  quietly  to  his  own  business;  and  much  impertin- 
ent inquiry  on  the  part  of  visitors  has  intensified  his  reticence.  But  Amana 
has  no  secrets  to  hide  from  the  world. 

"It  is  apparent,  however  that  that  isolation  from  the  "world"  for 
which  the  Community  of  True  Inspiration  has  so  earnestly  striven  and  which 
It  has  so  jealously  guarded  for  six  generations  becomes  less  and  less  easy- 
to  preserve.  The  railroad  and  airplane,  the  telephone  and  telegraph,  the 
newspaper  and  magazine,  the  endless  procession  of  automobiles,  and  the  great 
World  War  have  at  last  brought  the  Community  and  the  "world"  so  clos© 
together  that  marked  changes  are  taking  place  in  the  customs  of  the  people 
and  in  their  attitude  toward  life. 

"To  the  German  Mystics  and  Pietists  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries  the  Community  of  True  Inspiration  traces  its  origin  —  developing 
into  a  distinct  religious  sect  about  the  year  1714.  Protesting  against  the- 
dogmatism  of  the  Lutheran  Church  and  refusal  to  conform  to  its  ritual,  the- 
Inspirationists  were  persecuted  and  prosecuted.  They  were  fined,  pilloried, 
flogged,  imprdsoned,  legislated  against,  exiled,  and  stripped  of  their  posses- 
sions. 

"It  was  a  simple  faith  —  a  belief  in  guidance  through  divine  revelation 
^that  held  together  the  early  congregations  of  Inspirationists  despite  humil-. 
iation  and  torture.  ^  ^  ^  It  was  this  simple  faith  that  sustained  the  Community 
through  years  of  persecution  and  trial   in  the  Old  World  and  through  years 
of  suffering  and  sacrifice  in  the  New  World. 

"It   is   to   the   religious   zeal    and   practical   genius   of   Christian   Metz,   a 
young  carpenter  of  Ronneburg,  that   the   Community  owes   its  greatest  debt. 


8f 

Even  to  ihis  day  the  spell  of  the   influence  oi  this  remarkable  leader   is   felt 
throughout  Amana. 

"It  was  Christian  Metz  who  first  conceived  the  idea  of  leasing  estates  in  / 
common  as  a  refuge  for  the  faithful;  and  while  the  original  intention  had  / 
been  to  live  together  as  a  rhurch.  Met/  foresaw  that  a  system  of  communism 
would  be  the  natural  outcome  of  the  mode  of  life  which  these  people  had  bceu 
forced  to  adopt.  And  he  foresaw  that  exorbitant  rents  and  unfriendly  j^overn- 
ments  in  the  Old  World  would  one  day  make  it  necessary  for  the  Inspiration- 
isls  to  find  a  home  in  the  New  World,  'where  they  and  their  children  could 
live  in   peace  and  liberty.* 

"It  was  in  1842  that  a  committee  of  four  led  by  Christian  Met/  pur- 
chased the  Seneca  Indian  Reservation  —  a  tract  of  five  thousand  acres  near 
Buffalo,  Erie  County,  N.  Y.  Within  four  months  of  the  purchase  of  the- 
Reservation  the  first  village  of  the  Community  was  laid  out  and  peopled.  Five 
others  were  soon  established,  and  more  than  eight  hundred  menibers  crossed 
the  water  to  join  the  group  of  pioneers." 

A  number  of  people  also  joined  the  Society  from  Canada,  and  as  they 
owned  some  land  there,  the  Society  decided  to  locale  two  additional  villages 
on  it.  One  was  at  Caneborough,  later  changed  to  Kenneberg  by  the  Society, 
about  45  miles  northwest  of  Buffalo,  and  one  near  the  Niagara  River,  12 
miles  north  of  Buffalo,  called  Canada  Ebenezer. 

"Each  village  had  its  store,  its  school,  and  its  church;  soon  there  arose 
the  cheerful  hum  of  saw  mills,  woolen  mills,  and  flour  mills.  A  temporary 
constitution  providing  for  'common  possession'  was  adopted,  and  the  Com- 
munity was  formally  organized  under  the  name  of  'Ebenezer  Society.*  For 
twelve  years  they  toiled  in  the  mills  and  factories  and  tilled  the  newly-broken 
fields  when  it  became  apparent  that  more  land  than  was  available  so  near 
the  growing  city  of  Buffalo  would  be  necessary  to  accommodate  the  in- 
creasing membership.  And  once  more  a  committee  of  four,  with  Christiar* 
Metz  as  its  leader,  was  'ordained  and  directed'  to  go  forth  to  'find  a  new 
home  in  the  far  West.*  ^  ^  *  Lands  in  Iowa  County  were  described  in  such 
glowing  terms  that  a  purchase  of  nearly  eighteen  thousand  acres  was  made  by 
them  without  further  delay.  A  better  location  or  more  valuable  tract  of 
land  than  the  new  site  in  Iowa  could  hardly  be  imagined.  Through  it  ran 
the  beautiful  Iowa  River  bordered  with  the  wonderful  black  soil  of  its  wide 
valley.  On  one  side  were  the  bluffs  and  the  uplands  covered  with  a  luxur- 
iant growth  of  limber  —  promising  an  almost  limitless  supply  of  fuel  and 
building  material.  There  were  a  few  quarries  of  sandstone  and  limestone 
along  the  river;  while  the  clay  in  the  hills  was  unexcelled  for  the  manufacture 
of  brick.     On  the  other  side  of  the  river  stretched  the  rolling  prairie  land. 

"With  a  will  they  set  to  work  to  cut  the  timber  and  quarry  the  stone 
and  build  anew  houses,  shops,  mills,  factories,  churches,  and  schoolhouses. 
They   planted   orchards     and     vineyards,    and    purchased    flocks   and    herds* 


82 

They  revived  the  old  Industries  and  started  new  ones. 

"There  was  no  rush  to  the  country  so  gloriously  described  by  the  lowct 
fore-guards  —  though  no  one  can  doubt  the  eagerness  with  which  every 
member  looked  forward  to  the  upbuilding  of  the  new  home.  The  removal" 
from  Ebenezer  extended  over  a  period  of  ten  years  and  was  carried  thru  with 
that  prudence,  judgment,  and  common  sense  which  has  always  characterized, 
these  people   in   the   conduct   of   their  business   affairs. 

"While  one  detail  of  members  prepared  the  new  home  in  Iowa,  the  other 
looked  to  the  profitable  selling  of  the  old  estate  in  New  York.  As  they 
found  purchasers  for  the  latter,  they  sent  families  to  the  former.  To  their 
business  credit  it  is  recorded  that  they  were  able  to  dispose  of  the  whole  of 
the  eight  thousand  acre  tract  in  the  state  of  New  York  with  all  the  improve- 
ments without  the  loss  of  a  single  dollar,  notwithstanding  such  a  sale  pre- 
sented great  difficulties  —  for  the  six  communistic  villages  and  their  pecul- 
iar arrangement  of  buildings,  with  mills,  factories,  and  workshops  had  i^ecul- 
iariities  which  detracted  from  their  value   for  individual   uses. 

"The  first  village  on  the  Iowa  purchase  was  laid  out  during  the  sum^^ 
mer  of  1855  on  a  sloping  hillside  north  of  the  Iowa  River,  and  it  was  called 
'Amana'  by  Christian  Metz  —  the  word  signifying  'remain  true'  or  'believe 
faithfully.'  '^'  ^  *  Five  more  villages  were  laid  out  within  a  radius  of  six  miles 
from  Amana  and  were  named  an  accordance  with  their  locations.  West  Amana, 
South  Amana,  High  Amana,  East  Amana,  and  Middle  Amana.  Modeled  after 
the  country  villages  of  middle  Europe,  the  houses  of  the  'Amana  Co'unie?,'' 
as  they  are  commonly  called,  were  clustered  together  on  one  long  straggling 
street  with  several  irregular  offshoots,  with  the  barns  and  sheds  at  o'.e  end, 
the  factories  and  workshops  at  the  other,  and  on  either  side  the  orchards, 
the  vineyards,  and  the   gardens. 

"In  the  system  of  village  life,  which  has  been  the  great  conservator  of 
the  Community's  purity  and  simplicity,  the  Inspirationists  have  shown  their 
farsightedness.  The  villages  are  n^r  enough  to  one  another  to  facilitate  su- 
perintendence and  to  preserve  a  feeling  of  unity.  At  the  same  time  they  are 
far  enough  apart  to  maintain  a  simplicity  of  living,  which  would  probably 
be  impossible  with  the  same  number  of  people  congregated  in  one  place. 
By  this  means  the  Community,  while  taking  advantage  of  every  progressive 
step  in  the  methods  of  agriculture  and  the  processes  of  manufacture,  has 
been  able  to  sustain  in  its  social,  political,  and  religious  life  an  insular 
po&ition. 

"Two  steps  of  great  importance  were  taken  by  the  Community  soon 
after  its  removal  to  Iowa.  One  was  its  incorporation  under  the  laws  of  the 
State  as  the  'Amana  Society'  ;  and  the  other  was  the  adoption  of  a  new 
constitution. 

"The  fundamental  law  of  the  Amana  Society  '^  ^  ^•"  provides  simply  and 
briefly  a  civil  organization  for  a  religious  society.     It  is  worthy  of  comment 


83 
that  the  Amana  Society  still  lives  under  the  provisions  of  the  instrument  that 
has  received  the  signature  of  every  member  of  the  Society  since  its  adoption 
in  December,   1859. 

"The  membership,  numbering  eight  hundred  v^'hen  the  Community  mi- 
grated to  New  York  and  twelve  hundred  when  the  removal  to  Iowa  took 
place,  has  increased  to  fifteen  hundred  at  the  present  day.  Bountiful  har- 
vests have  rewarded  their  untiring  industry;  the  products  of  their  mills  and 
factories  have  found  a  market  from  Maine  to  California;  and  in  the  books 
of  the  .Auditors  of  Iowa  and  Johnson  counties,  their  real  and  personal  pro|>- 
erty  was  listed  in   1920  at  $2,102,984." 

The  official  "Brief  History  of  the  Amana  Society  or  Community  of  True 
Inspiration."  revised  in  1918,  has  this  to  say  of  the  material  phases  of  the 
colony: 

"The  increase  in  membership  has  been  slow  but  steady  up  to  a  few  years 
ago;    for  several  years  it   remained  stationary   between    1700  and    1800,  and 
now  is  about    1500.     The  Society  operates  two  woolen   mills,  one  at  Amana 
and  the  other  at  Midale  Amana.     The  fwwer  for  these  manufactories  is  fur- 
nished by  the  Iowa   River  through   a   canal   7  miles  in   length  and  by   steam 
power  plants.     Besides   these   there   is  a   flouring   mill   at   Amana   and  one   at 
West   Amana.    also    7   stores   distributed    through    the    various    towns.      These 
stores  supply  the  wants  of  the  members,  as  well  as  of  the  surrounding  farming 
population.     The  Society  raises  nearly  all   the  agricultural   products   required 
for  its  own  use,  several  hundred  hired  laborers  being  employed  for  the  heavier 
\\ork.     Nearly  all  the  towns  are  provided  with  a  water  system   fed   from  the 
canal  or  by  deep  wells.     Each  member  is  provided  with  board  and  dwelling, 
as   provided   for   in   the  constitution.     The   meals   are   taken   in    large    kitchen 
houses,  where  30  to  50  people  eat  together,  thus  making  cooking  by  individ- 
ual  families  unnecessary.      Children   attend  school   throughout   the  year   from 
the  age  of  5  to   14.     The  schools,  part  of  the  public  school  system,  are  grad- 
ed and  are  conducted  by  teachers   who  are   members  of  the   Society.      Reli- 
gious meetings  are  held  ni  large  meeting  houses,  twice  on  Sunday  and  r.orr'e- 
times  on  week  days,  and  a  short  prayer-meeting  is  held  every  evening.    The 
services   are   presided   over   by   one   of   the   elders,   of  whom   there   a'e   about 
80  in  all.     No  one  at  the  present  time  has  the  gift  of  inspiration,  as  Chris- 
tian .Metz  died  in   1867,  and  Barbara  Landmann  in    1883,  but  the  Ici^timonies 
and  writings  left  by  these  are  read  in  all  meetings. 

"New  members  are  not  admitted  except   they   first   give   pioof  of  being 
fully  in  accord  with  the  religious  doctrine  of  the  Society,  and  then  they  usually 
have  to  go  through  a  period  of  probation.     The  trustees  have  the  power  to  ex- 
pel any  member  whose  conduct  is  not  according  to  the  rules  of  the  Society." 
Continuing,   the   Palimpsest    article    says: 

"And  the  difficulties  of  administration  of  so  human   hh   inslitulion   are 
apparent.     Six  r;e"efal>ons  cf  precept  and  practice  in  self-denipj  and  brother- 


84 

ly  love  have  not,  of  course,  completely  annihilated  the  dissatisfierj  and  trouble- 
some. Nor  was  there  ever  a  congregatior  of  fifteen  hundred  sculs  withoi-t 
its  hampering  Brothers  —  those  upon  whom  the  responsibility  of  pr-^terting  "he 
highly  cherished  good  name  of  the  organization  rests  but  lightly,  those  who 
enjoy  its  material  blessings  and  benefits,  but  are  reluctant  to  share  the  bur- 
dens  and  cares  and  the  necessary  sacrifice. 

"Under  the   terms  of  the  constitution   of  the   Amana   Society   such   pre- 
sumptuous members  can  be  expelled  as  from  any  other  church  organization. 
But  such  an  expulsion,  however,  presents  baffling   complications   since   it  in- 
volves the  actual  turning  out  of  house  and  home  of  the  disturbing  elements.    It 
;'is  in  the  successful  solution  of  such  problems  quite  as  much  as  ni  the  bus- 
;aness  foresight  of  its  administrative  officers  that  one  discovers  the  explanation 
-of  the  Community's  long  life.     The  predominating  spirit  is  still  the   spirit  of 
■the  forefathers.     Were  it  not  so  the  Community  could  not  be  held  together, 
for  the  Amana  Society  is,  after  all,  simply  a  voluntary  association  depending 
for  its  perpetuity  upon  the  general  good  will  and  good  faith  of  its  members. 
"The  Trustees   elect  annually  on   the   second  Tuesday   of  the   month   of 
-December   out   of   their   own    number   a    President,   a   Vice-President,    and   a 
•  Secretary.     The  incumbents  are  usually  re-elected;    for  rotation  in  office  has 
never  been  a  part  of  the  Amana  theory  of  government. 

"In  the  month  of  June  in  each  year  the  Trustees  exhibit  to  the  voting 
members  of  the  Society  (who  comprise,  according  to  the  by-laws,  all  male 
members  who  have  signed  the  constitution,  all  widows,  and  such  female 
members  as  are  thirty  years  of  age  and  are  not  represented  through  some 
male  member)  a  full  statement  of  'the  real  and  personal  estate  of  the  Society.' 
In  matters  of  great  importance  special  meetings  of  the  whole  Society  may 
be  called.  But  in  general  the  Society  has  avoided  the  mistake  (common 
enough  in  many  contemporary  communities)  of  too  many  mass  meetings.  It 
took  five  upheavals  of  the  Icarian  Community  to  teach  the  lesson  of  leaving 
routine  administration  to  committees  instead  of  discussing  every  detail  in  fre- 
quent meetings  of  the  assembly. 

"The  Amana  Society  aims  to  keep  its  members  informed  on  the  general 
-condition  of  affairs;  but  there  is  a  decided  tendency  to  reduce  unnecessary 
discussion  to  the  minimum  by  'leaving  such  things  to  those  that  best  under- 
stand them.'  The  Board  of  Trustees  is  the  high  court  of  appeal  in  cases  of 
disagreements,  dissension,  and  complaints  within  the  Society.  Owing  to  the 
nature  of  the  Community  there  are  no  lawyers  in  Amana.  However,  in  suits 
■  with  outside  parties  the  Society  does  not  hesitate  to  employ  counsel. 

""Zach  village  is  governed  by  a  group  of  elders  varying  in  number  —  not 

necessarily  old  men,  but  men  who  are  deemed  to  be  of  deep  piety  and  spirit- 

uality.      At   the    same    time    the    Community    profoundly    believes    that    'Days 

should  speak   and   multitude   of   years   should  teach   wisdom.'      By   that    nice 

;  adjustment  of  functions  that  necessarily  grows  up  in  such  a  community,  the 


85 

iiighest  authority  in  the  village  in  matters  spiritual  is  the  Head  KIder;  m 
matters  temporal,  the  resident  Trustee.  And  although  the  Trustee  is  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Great  Council  itself,  which  is  the  spiritual  head  of  the  Community, 
in  the  village  church,  the  Head  Rider  outranks  the  Trustee. 

"Each  village  keeps  its  own  books  and  manages  its  own  affairs  in  ac- 
cordance with  ihe  resolutions  of  the  Great  Council;  but  all  accounts  are 
finally  sent  to  the  headquarters  at  Amana  where  they  are  insjiected  and  the 
balance  of  profit  or  loss  is  discovered.  It  is  presumed  that  the  labor  of  each 
village  produces  a  profit;  but  whether  it  does  or  not  makes  no  difference 
in  the  supplies  allotted  to  the  village  or  to  members  thereof.  The  system 
of  government  is  thus  a  sort  of  federation  wherein  each  villr.ge  maii-tains  a 
certain  sphere  of  independence  in  local  administration,  but  is  under  the  gen- 
eral control  and  supervision  of  a  governing  central  authority  —  the  Board  of 
Irustees   or  Great   Council  of  the   Brethren. 

"The  Amana  houses  are  substantially  built,  and  quite  unpretentious.  It 
has  been  the  purpose  of  the  Community  to  construct  the  houses  as  nearly 
alike  as  possible.  There  is  no  hard  and  fast  rule,  but  the  aim  is  to  make  one 
as  desirable  as  the  other.  There  is  in  the  private  homes  no  kitchen,  no  din- 
ing-room, no  parlor  —  just  a  series  of  sitting-rooms  and  bed-rooms,  which 
are,  almost  without  exception,  roomy  and  homelike.  In  addition  to  the  gen- 
eral family  sitting-room,  each  member  of  a  household  has  as  a  rule  his  own 
>individual  sitting-room  as  well  as  his  own  individual  bed-room.  Here  he 
is  at  liberty  to  uidulge  his  own  taste  in  decoration  —  provided  that  lie  does  not 
go  beyond  his  allowance  or  violate  the  rules  of  the  Community.  Here  h«*  may 
ride  his  hobbies  or  store  his  keepsakes  without  being  disturbed  —  which  ac- 
counts in   part   for  the  general  content   of  the  young  people. 

"General  housekeeping  in  .Amana  is  a  comparatively  simple  matter.  At 
more  or  less  regular  intervals  in  each  village  there  is  a  'kitchen-house' — a 
little  larger  than  the  ordinary  dwelling  —  where  the  meals  for  the  families 
in  the  immediate  neighborhood  are  prepared  and  served.  From  sixteen  to 
fifty  persons  eat  at  one  kitchen,  the  number  depending  largely  upon  the  loca- 
tion. The  places  are  assigned  by  the  resident  Trustee  or  local  Council,  the 
chief  consideration  being  the  convenience   of  those  concerned. 

"The  kitchen-house  system  of  Amana  may  lack  the  economy  of  the  com- 
munistic ideal  —  the  unitary  dining-room  —  but  there  is  much  to  be  said  in 
its  favor.  To  the  Great  Council  of  the  Brethren  the  purity  and  sirnpl.'ciiv 
of  rfie  Community  have  ever  been  more  important  considerations  than  mini- 
mum expenditure.  ^'  *  *  Mass  meeting  is  in  no  way  a  part  of  the  working 
scheme  of  the  Amana  Society.  Even  in  the  church  there  are  separa'c  apart- 
ments or  meeting-rooms  for  the  young  men,  the  young  women,  and  fhe  older 
members.  Indeed,  if  Amana  has  made  any  distinctive  contribution  to  prac- 
tical, worl  ing  communism,  it  is  in  the  combination,  or  rathe  thr  nice  ad- 
justment,  between    separatism    and    communism,    whereby    mutual    interest    is 


86 

maintained  without  inviting  the  pitfalls  of  too  much  getting  together. 

"The  Amana  kitchen  as  large  and  airy,  often  extending  through  the  full 
depth  of  the  house.  Each  kitchen  has  its  supply  of  hot  and  cold  water  and 
its  sink  and  drain.  Every  pan  and  kettle  has  its  shelf  or  hook;  and  there 
are  more  conveniences  for  paring  and  slicing,  chopping  and  grinding,  than 
the  average  housewife  of  the  world  ever  dreamed  of.  But  the  really  dis- 
itinctive  feature  of  the  Amana  kitchen  is  the  long  low  brick  stove  with  its 
iron  plate  top.  This  is  built  along  one  side  of  the  room;  and  back  of  it 
there  is  a  sheet  of  bin  several  feet  high  which  shines  like  a  mirror.  For 
its  upper  edge  hangs  a  most  surprising  variety  of  strainers,  spoons,  dippers, 
and  ladles.  On  top  of  the  brick  stove  are  the  huge  copper  boilers  and  ket- 
tles which  a  community  kitchen  necessitates.  In  recent  years  there  has  been 
; added  to  each  kitchen  a  modern  cook-stove,  which  is  used  during  the  win- 
ter for  heating  as  well  as   for  cookmg  purposes. 

"In  the  kitchen  everything  from  the  floor  to  ceiling  is  as  clean  and 
tright  as  can  be  made  by  soap  and  water,  brooms  and  mops.  The  Amana 
woman  knows  none  of  the  vexations  of  the  village  housewife  of  the  world, 
in  whose  home  as  a  rule  proper  conveniences  for  the  kitchen  are  the  last  to 
he  provided.  Woodsheds  and  store-houses  are  built  in  the  most  convenient 
places;  there  are  covered  passage-ways  from  the  house  to  the  'bake-oven* 
;and  outstandings;  and  there  is  commonly  a  hired  man  at  the  kitchen-house 
ifor  the  carrying  of  water  and  hewing  of  wood.  There  is  absolute  system  in 
every  detail  of  the  house  work;  and  the  women  do  not  appear  to  be  over- 
worked. 

"Each  kitchen  is  superintended  by  a  woman  appointed  by  the  Elders,  who 
is  assisted  by  three  of  the  younger  women,  each  taking  her  turn  in  at- 
tending to  the  dining-room,  preparing  vegetables,  cooking,  and  washing 
dishes.  As  a  general  rule,  one  week  of  'part  time'  follows  two  weeks  of  serv- 
ice in  the  kitchen  —  which,  it  must  be  admitted,  is  a  great  improvement 
over  the  ceaseless  routine  of  the  life  of  the  average  housewife  of  the  world. 
The  older  women  do  not  work  m  the  kitchen  as  a  rule ;  hence  it  is  some- 
:  times  necessary  to  hire  help  from  the  outside.  It  is  the  aim  of  the  Com- 
munity to  have  hired  help  in  the  hotel  kitchens  in  order  to  shield  its  own 
young  women  from  too  close  contact  with  the  world.  The  fact  that  the  aver- 
.  age  summer  visitor  too  often  leaves  his  manners  in  the  city  when  he  chances 
to  take  an  outing  makes  the  wisdom  of  such  a  rule  evident. 

"Wagons   from   the   village   bakery,   butcher   shop,   and   dairy   make    the 

,  daily  rounds  of  the  kitchens.     Cheese  and  unsalted  butter   for  table  use  are 

made  in  er.ch  kitchen,  along  with  its  own  special  cooking  and  baking.    Large 

,   dryers  at  the  woolen  mills,  where  steam  heat  can  be  utilized  are  now  used  for 

the  drying  of  vegetables  for  winter  use. 

"It  is  the  aim  of  the  Community  to  produce  as  far  as  practicable  all 
1.  the   food  consumed  by  the  members.     At  the   same   time   the  Amana   people 


87 
CO  not  deny  themselves  any  comforts  which  are  comi)atible  with  simpHcily 
of  life.  The  tables  are  bountifully  laden  with  wholesome  food;  but  the  menu 
is  practically  the  same  from  day  to  day,  except  as  varied  by  the  presence  of 
Iresh  fruits  and  vegetables  in  their  season.  The  Inspirationists  are  not  faddists 
in  their  diet;  they  have  no  theories  regarding  the  effect  of  a  vegetable  and 
fruit  diet  on  'the  health  of  the  body,  and  the  purity  of  the  mind,  and  the 
happiness  of  society.'  They  have  no  decided  opinions  regarding  the  relative 
merits  of  lard  and  tallow,  and  no  rule  against  the  'eating  of  dead  creatures.' 
Tea  and  coffee  are  commonly  used.  In  short,  the  food  throughout  the  Com- 
munity is  well  cooked  and  substantial,  but  unmodified  by  any  modern  dietetic 
philosophy. 

"Breakfast  is  served  in  the  Amana  kitchens  at  six  o'clock  in  the  sum- 
mer-time and  half  an  hour  later  in  the  winter-time.  The  dinner  hour  is  I  I  :  30 
the  year  'round.  With  the  supper  bell,  which  rings  at  half  past  six  in  the 
winter-time  and  at  seven  o'clock  in  the  summer-time,  the  day's  work  closes. 
In  addition  to  these  three  meals  the  Inspirationist  takes  a  lunch  in  the  mid- 
dle of  each  half  day.  Those  who  work  at  considerable  distance  from  the 
kitchen  carry  their  lunches  with  them.  When  the  supper  things  are  cleared 
the  members  gather  in  small  groups  at  different  places  in  the  villages  for  the 
evening  prayer-meeting. 

"There  was  a  time  in  the  pioneer  days  of  the  Community  (when  all 
energies  were  bent  to  the  building  of  a  new  home  in  the  wilderness)  when 
the  women,  in  the  manner  of  our  Puritan  grandmothers,  shared  almost  equally 
the  physical  labors  of  the  men.  But  as  the  Community  prospered  the  lot  of 
the  women  became  ea&ier;  and  to-day  the  woman  of  Amana  knows  noth- 
ing of  the  cares  of  the  average  house-mother  who  is  expected  to  perform  the 
combined  duties   of  housemaid  and   nurse,   hostess  and  church  worker. 

"In  every  department  of  service  in  which  woman  participates  the  work 
is  carefully  apportioned  to  her^stiejigth.  The  woman  with  children  under 
the  age  of  two  is  not  required  to  take  part  in  the  general  village  work,  and 
her  meals  are  brought  to  her  home  in  a  basket  from  the  nearest  kitchen- 
house.  There  is  a  nursery  or  kindergarten  in  each  village  well  supplied  wiih 
.'•and  piles  ond  the  variety  of  playthings  deemed  necessary  to  keep  children 
intere.-iled.  Here  the  little  folks  between  three  years  and  school  age  are  care  I 
for  when  necessary  to  enable  their  mothers  to  take  part  in  the  village  work. 

"In  connection  with  every  kitchen-house  is  a  vegetable  garden  of  from 
two  to  three  acres.  The  heaviest  of  the  garden  work  is  always  done  by  the 
hired  man;  but  the  superintendence  and  general  care  of  the  garden  are  en- 
trusted to  the  women.  This  work  is  lighter  than  the  kitchen  work  and  the 
hours  are  shorter;  and  so  the  garden  work  is  albtted  to  the  middle-aged  and 
older  women. 

"Whoever  has  fared  on  the  produce  of  t'le  kitchen-house  garden  can  un- 
derstand the  feeling  of  the  Amana  prodigal  who  returned  to  the  Community 


-y 


m 

because  there  was  "nothng  fit  to  eat  in  the  world."  There  is  fresh  lettuce 
from  March  to  December,  grown  in  hotbeds  at  one  end  of  the  garden  and 
kept  in  sand  in  the  cellar  at  the  other.  There  is  ever-green  spinach  that  is 
delicious  the  whole  summer  long;  and  the  garden  superintendent  knows  how  to 
lengthen  the  green  pea  and  wax  bean  season  to  the  most  surprising  extent. 
There  are  great  white  cauHflowers  averaging  ten  inches  across;  there  are 
kale  and  salsify,  red  cabbage  and  yellow  tomatoes,  and  much  more  that 
the  visitor  from  the  world  does  not  even  know  by  name.  At  one  end  of  the 
summer  the  kitchen  garden  brings  forth  huge  strawberries  and  raspberries, 
'to  which  even  the  gorgeously  illustrated  seed  catalogues  can  not  do  justice; 
and  at  the  other  end  a  marvelous  variety  of  apples,  and  pears,  and  plum.s, 
•and  grapes. 

"Formerly  the  village  tailor  made  all  of  the  clothing  for  the  men,  but 
.'it  was  found  to  be  cheaper  to  buy  'ready-made'  clothes  for  ordmary  wear. 
The  'best  clothes'  are  still  quite  generally  made  by  the  Community  tailor;  for 
the  young  man  gets  his  goods  at  cost^rom  the  woolen  mills,  and,  as  the  time 
cf  the  tailor  belongs  to  the  Society,  he  is  thus  enabled  to  dress  well  on  less 
than  one  fourth  of  what  it  costs  his  brother  in  the  world.  The  older  Brothers 
are  a  little  more  orthodox  and  still  wear  'Colony'  trousers  and  a  Sunday  coat 
without  lapels.  "^  ^  "^ 

"The  costume  of  the  women  might  almost  be  called  a  uniform  two  hun- 
dred years  old,  the  dress  of  to-day  among  the  more  orthodox  being  practically 
•the  same  as  at  the  founding  of  the  Community.  Until  recently  the  summer 
clothing  of  the  women  was  made  largely  of  the  calico  printed  by  the  Com- 
imunity  and  known  from  Maine  to  California  as  'Amana  Calico.'  The  print- 
ing works,  however,  were  closed  during  the  World  War,  owmg  to  the  impossi- 
bility of  obtaining  reliable  dyes  —  particularly  the  indigo  for  the  Society's 
best  known  'Colony  Blue'  —  and  up  to  the  present  time  the  industry  has  not 
Leen  resumed.  The  only  head  dress  in  the  summer  time  is  a  sun  bonnet  with 
•a  long  cape;   a  hood  takes  its  place  in  cold  weather. 

"The  religious  services  of  the  Community  of  True  Inspiration  are  numer- 
ous, but  extremely  simple.  There  is  no  attempt  at  rhetorical  effect  or  elo- 
quence on  the  part  of  the  Elders;  the  hymns  are  chanted  without  instrumental 
•accompaniment  and  ofttimes  the  prayer  is  'unhindered  by  words.'  The  serv- 
ice is  dignified  and  breathes  throughout  a  reverent  and  devout  spirit,  and 
ever  there  remains  the  sincere  effort  of  the  forefathers  to  eliminate  all  that  is 
formal  and  bound  to  the  letter.  At  the  close  of  the  service  the  congregation 
quietly  files  out  of  the  church.  If  it  chances  to  be  a  general  meeting,  the 
women  all  leave  the  church  by  one  exit  and  the  men  by  another.  This  no 
doubt  is  calculated  to  prevent  'silly  conversation  and  trifling  conduct.'  There 
are  no  greetings,  no  good-byes,  no  vi&iting  on  the  steps  of  the  church  —  noth- 
:jng  in  fact  that  would  tend  to  lessen  the  solemnity  of  the  occasion. 

"The  Community  to-day  is  a  living  history  of  all  of  the  work  and  char- 


89 
acter  and  ideals  that  have  been  associated  w'nh  il  in  the  past;  and  when  wc 
look  into  the  faces  of  the  splendid  young  men  and  women  to  whom  it  has 
been  handed  on  as  a  precious  inheritance,  when  we  hear  the  chant  of  the 
'primer  class'  as  it  floats  out  of  the  vine-covered  school  window,  we  know 
that  in  spite  of  external  modifications  and  adjustments,  in  spite  of  the  occa- 
sional 'emblem  of  vanity'  and  'worldly  amusement,'  in  spite  of  the  inevitable 
'black  sheep'  in  the  fold,  much  of  the  beautiful  spirit  of  'the  old  defenders 
of  the  faith'  still  jjcrvades  the  Community.  The  history  of  mankind  teaches 
that  'religion  often  makes  practicable  that  which  were  else  impossible,  and 
<livine  love  triumphs  when  human  science  is  baffled.'  " 

BERTH.A    M.    II.    SHAMBAUGH. 


90  I 

BOTANY    BAY    MUTINEERS 

1825  to  Present  Time 

One  of  the  strangest  of  all  communities  was  that  of  the  Bounty  Mutin- 
'etrs,  established  in  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century.  A  group  of 
seamen,  with  some  officers,  mutinied  and  fled  from  the  British  warship 
Bounty,  commanded  by  Admiral  Bligh,  disarming  those  who  failed  to  go 
with  them.  The  mutineers  set  forth  in  open  boats,  evidently  with  some  hazy 
notion  of  becoming  Captain  Kidds.  They  first  landed  on  the  Marquesian 
Islands,  one  of  the  Polynesian  group,  where  each  man  took  a  woman.  They 
soon  departed  with  the  women.  It  is  not  recorded  by  what  means  they  in- 
duced the  women  to  leave — whether  they  were  taken  in  battle  Or  by  barter  or 
by  mutual  consent.  Staying  below  the  tropic  of  Capricorn,  the  mutineers 
finally  landed  on  a  rugged  island  which  they  called  Pitt,  after  one  of  their 
leaders,  a  Scotchman.  It  reminded  the  latter  of  his  native  rocky  land,  so  he 
added  the   "cairn,"  meaning   rocks,   to   it. 

Whether  or  not  the  island  was  inhabited  prior  to  their  coming  is  not 
known.  If  so,  it  was  by  Melanesians,  who  are  the  negroid  type  of  South 
sea  Islanders,  and  distinctly  inferior  to  the  Polynesians,  who  are  known  as 
the  ".Aristocrats  of  the  human  race."  Any  negroid  Melanesians  would  pro- 
bably have  been  killed  by  the  invaders.  At  this  time  the  latter,  with  the 
■women,  numbered  between  50  and  60,  and  among  them  were  several  naval 
officers. 

The  mutiny  had  been  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  and  as 
no  trace  of  the  mutineers  was  ever  found,  it  was  assumed  that  they  had 
been  lost  in  a  storm.  Not  until  25  years  later  were  they  discovered  on  Pit- 
cairn  Island.  During  this  period,  as  a  result  of  the  American  Revolution,  the 
system  of  expatriating  prisoners  had  been  changed,  and  now  they  were  being 
put  on  islands  in  the  vicinity  of  Australia.  In  time  Pitcairn  Island  was  found, 
and  to  the  intense  surprise  of  the  discoverers,  a  thriving  community  was  found. 

Among  the  islands  selected  for  prisoners  were  Norfolk  and  Tasmania. 
Norfolk,  under  Governor  Burgess,  became  a  place  of  plenty.  It  is  only  six 
miles  wide  and  ten  miles  long,  and  the  beauty-loving  governor  had  it  laid 
out  like  an  'English  garden,  with  a  border  of  trees  around  the  entire  island. 

But  eventually  the  British  government  found  that  putting  prisoners 
on  the  mainland  of  Australia  was  preferable  to  maintaining  the  island  pris- 
ons, and  Norfolk  was  abandoned.  Because  of  the  stigma  which  had  been  at- 
tached to  it,  no  one  could  be  found  who  was  willing  to  live  on  it. 

Meantime  the  sons  and  grandsons  of  the  Bounty  Mutineers  had  multi- 
plied. The  island  of  Pitcairn  was  overcrowded.  Instead  of  being  considered 
as  outcasts,  these  newly-discovered  British-Polynesian  subjects  of  the  Queen 
were    looked   upon    as   very   lovable   wards,    and    finally   Norfolk    Island   was 


9r 

tendered  ihem.  They  gladly  accepted  ll.  thus  becoming  heirs  to  many  fme 
buildings  and  an  island  which  was  not  only  beautiful,  but  which  had  been 
brought   to  a   high   point    ol    productiveness. 

Duruig  the  time  they  were  on  Pitcairn.  and  because  of  the  exigencies 
of  their  position,  or  perhaps  because  they  learned  something  from  their  Poly- 
nesian wives,  the  Pitcairn  Islanders  developed  community  living,  holding  all 
goods  in  common  and  benefitting  on  an  equality  from  their  associated  indus- 
try. This  system  of  community  living  they  took  with  them  to  Norfolk  Island. 
Some  of  the  Pitcairn  Islanders  were  also  sent  to  Lord  Howe  Island.  But  all 
maintained  their  community  living,  though  they  eventually  adopted  different 
religions,  some   becoming  Episcopalians,   and  other  Seventh   Day  Adventists. 

Soon  after  taking  up  residence  on  NorftJtk  they  grew  slothful  and  lazjl 
and  sought  the  easiest   lines  of  making  a  living.     The  making  of  liquor  was     > 
developed,  and  for  a  time  they  were  in  danger  of  extinction  because  of  their     \ 
drunkenness.     Eventually  there  arose  one  John  Fletcher  who  took  charge  and 
saved  there,  inducing  them   to  again   go  back  to  their  industrious   habits. 

The  British  government  has  permitted  these  integral  co-operators  to  have 
their  own  system  of  government,  though  it  sends  a  judge  among  them  ancJ 
perhaps  some  other  officers. 

With  a  whole  island,  productive  and  rich,  with  a  perfect  climate,  with 
splendid  buildings,  and  with  everything  they  need,  these  co-operators  are  rich. 
They  use  no  money,  and  the  richest  man  among  them  had  about  $25.  They 
barter  mostly.  But  they  are  rich,  nevertheless,  for  they  have  all  of  the  means 
of  producing  all  they  need  or  want,  and  they  have  no  fear  of  losing  "this 
wealth.     They  hav<*   security  and   happiness. 

.Although    some    community   dwellers    have    become    pacifists,    these    Nor-      ] 
folk   Islanders   have   not:    and   they   are    fanatically   loyal    to  Great   Britain,   as 
perhaps  they  have  good  reason  to  be.  for  certainly  they  are  beneficiaries  of 
the  government  their  ancesters  deserted.     During  the  war  they  pledged   most 
of   their  chattels   to  the   governmejjt. 

There  are  probably  krtTrSi widred  people  on  Norfolk  Island,  the  chief  | 
one  of  the  group  of  community  islands  now  owned  by  the  descendants  of  the 
would-be  buccaneers  of  the  good  ship  Bounty,  deserted  by  a  part  of  her 
crew  more  than  a  century  ago.  But  whatever  may  have  been  their  ideals 
or  lack  of  them  or  their  misdeeds  or  wrong  intentions,  they  were  forced  into 
a  system  of  living  which  has  made  them  safe  and  secure  and  which  has  wor> 
for  their  children's  children  a  greater  measure  of  happiness  and  safety  ancj" 
security  and  material  wealth  than  falls  to  tb;  majority  of  people  anywhere. 


92 

THE  PERFECTIONIST   COMMUNITIES 

184S  to   Present  Time 

One   of   the    best-known     communities     is     the    Oneida   Community,    tho. 
few  know  that  it  was  purely  communistic  in  its  early  history,  and  only  when  its 
industries  outgrew  the  colony  was  it  incorporated  and  its  industries  conducted 
as    a    purely   commercial    enterprise,    chief    among    them    being    the    fAmous 
Community  Silver,  widely  advertised. 

Before  the  Oneida  Community,  ht»wever,  was  the  Putney  Community, 
with  its  history  really  a  part  of  the  latter  as  the  Oneida  Community  was  in 
effect  a  continuation  of  the  Putney.  John  Humphrey  Noyes,  Perfectionist 
leader  and  preacher,  founded  both  of  th^em,  and  also  Wallingford  and  all 
were  successful.  Deeply  religious,  he  became  a  critic  of  religions  at  an  early 
age  and  refused  to  be  confined  by  existing  religious  fetters.  He  later  aided^ 
in  the  organization  of  one  of  the  earliest  Anti-Slavery  Societies  and  devoted' 
much  time  to  religious  work  among  colored  people. 

Noyes  tried  to  make  himself  a  perfect  Christian,  and  on  one  occasiori 
claimed  a  degree  of  perfection  that  won  for  him  and  Ms  followers,  eventually, 
the  title  Perfectionists.  He  was  ordained  for  the  ministry,  but  would  not 
conform  to  the  teachings  and  requirements  of  the  Yale  Theological  Sem- 
inary and  finally  lost  his  license  to  preach  because  of  hferesy.  He  finally 
returned  to  his  father's  home  in  Putney,  Vermont.  There,  with  his  wife,  his 
two  .brothers  and  two  sisters,  and  the  wife  of  one  of  the  brothers,  a  com- 
munity was  formed  consecrated  to  religion.  All  things  were  possessed  in 
common.  A  farm  came  to  the  brothers  in  settlement  of  the  father's  estate 
and  another  to  the  two  sisters,  and  were  turned  into  the  little  colony.  The 
work  of  publisMng  a  little  paper  was  done  by  the  small  community.  This 
was  in  1838.  A  year  later  several  additional  members  joined.  Gradually 
others  joined,  many  of  them  skilled  in  trades.  In  1845  the  association  was. 
organized  and  called  the  Putney  Corporation. 

The  officers  were  to  be  a  president  and  a  secretary  and  three  director^. 
At  least  three  of  the  five  must  agree  on  any  measure;    in  the  event  of  dis-- 
agreement  thte  matter  might  be  submitted  to  the  group.     The  unanimous  con-- 
ser.t  of  the  members  of  the  corporation  was  required  for  the  admission  oi  new 
members.     Any  member  could  withdraw  at  any  time  by  notifying  the  Board' 
or  Officers  and  assuming  his  own  maintenance.     Any  member  could  be  ex- 
cluded from  the  corporation  by  a  vote  of  a  majority  of  the  members.     All 
pioperty  belonging   to  the   members   at   th'e   time   of   subscribing   to   the   con- 
stitution or  which  they  might  subsequently  come   into  possession   of,   was  to 
be  held  as  the  property  of  the  corporation,    subject  to  the  control  of  the  ex- 
ecutive officers. 

A   school   was   early   established   at   which   Hebrew,   Greek,   Latin,   and 


9i 
other  branches  were  taught.  The  group  possessed  500  acres  of  good  land, 
seven  dwelhngs.  a  store,  printing  shop,  and  other  buildings.  The  members 
occupied  separate  homes,  but  lived  as  a  family.  I  he  hope  of  the  commun- 
ity was  that  it  migK  some  day  publish  a  daily  religious  pa|>er. 

One  of  the  features  of  the  Putney  community  was  the  belief  in  miracu- 
lous healing.  One  of  the  members,  known  to  the  villagers  for  years  as  an- 
invalid,  sick  with  a  complication  of  diseases,  nearly  blind,  pronounced  to  he 
incurable,  and  cx|>ected  to  die  at  any  time,  was  "raised  instantly  by  the 
laying  on  of  bands  and  by  the  word  of  command  *  *  ^'"  This  caused  great 
excitement.  The  woman's  husband,  an  avowed  infidel,  previously  not  attract-- 
ed  to  the  Perfectionists,  testified  that  his  wife  had  been  raised  by  the  jxjwer 
of  God.  and  that  the  same  |x)wcr  hbd  raised  him  from  the  darkness  and 
misery  of  unbelief.  This,  together  with  the  social  innovations  of  the  Per- 
fectionists, was  the  excuse  for  indignation  meetings  and  a  denunciation  of 
Noycs  and  his  associates.  Perhaps  the  social  innovations  were  the  collective 
marriages.  Legal  proceedings  were  threatened.  The  paper  was  voluntarily 
suspended,  and  Mr.  Noyes  left  Putney,  the  others  following  soon.  Less  than 
three  years  later  a  sub-colony  of  the  Oneida  Community  was  established  iih 
Putney  and  was  maintained  for  five  years. 


ONEIDA 

A  few  month's  later,  those  who  had  fled  from  Putney,  with  some  of  thost^ 
who  had  remained  in  Putney,  gathered  at  Oneida,  with  a  membershi|)  on  Jan- 
uary. 1849,  of  87  members.  During  the  year  the  membership  doubled;  irt 
February,  1851.  there  were  205  members,  in  1875  there  were  298  members 
in  Oneida  Community  and  its  branches,  and  in  1878  there  were  306.  it  will" 
be  seen  that  the  growth  was  not  rapid,  for  in  nearly  30  years  the  growth' 
was  only  from  87  to  306.  an  average  gain  of  less  than  8  jjersons  a  year.  Wal- 
ingford  and  some  others  were  established  in  the  early  50's;  but  soon  the- 
ix)licy  of  concentration  was  adopted,  and  the  financial  prosperity  of  the  com- 
munity dates   from  this  time. 

.At   first  the  Oneida  Community  consisted  of  two  small   frame  dwellings^ 

USZOp    B    SBM    J|       -SUBipUJ    OljJ    Xl|      p3UMO    3DUO    *||HUMB<    p|0    UK    pUH    'jnu    8o|    B 

years  before  the  members  got  beyond  sleeping  in  garrets  and  out-nouses. 
The  industries  were  of  the  simplest  and  rudest  farming,  logging,  milling., 
clearing  swamps — and  in  this  work,  particularly  the  latter,  the  women  look 
part,  as  they  did  in  the  later  home-building.  There  were  no  distinctions  of 
classes  in  respect  to  labor.  The  Community  treasury  was  frequently  empty 
and  at  times  thfey  could  not  pay  postage.  Grocery  bills  remained  unpaict 
at  times  and  the  larder  was  lean.  During  the  first  nine  years  of  pioneer 
work  the  community  reduced  its  capital  from  $107,000  to  $67,000,  but  it 
improved  its  organization,  developed  important  principles  and  measurej.  and 


94 

started  several  businesses,  some  of  which  proved  fairly  remunerative.     Grad- 
ually the  Community  won  the  esteem  of  neighbors  and  others. 

Visitors  were  attracted  from  everywhere  and  at  times  as  many  a<  1000 
to   1500  persons  thronged  the  grounds. 

Most  of  the  Perfectionists  were  Americans.  There  were  some  well- 
educated  men  and  women  among  them.  Women  worked  in  the  industries. 
The  community  hired  some  outside  labor.  They  permitted  women  to  take 
up  any  occupations  thtey  desired.  In  1880  the  hired  employes  numbered  from 
one  hundred  to  two  hundred  and  fifty.  Though  not  in  sympathy  with  the 
system  of  paying  wages,  they  did  this  in  thb  hope  that  they  were  helping 
those  who  could  not  understand  collectivism. 

Superintendents  were  appointed  after  being  freely  discussed  by  officials 
and  lay  members.  The  Business  Board  elected  some.  This  Board  was 
composed  of  all  members  who  cared  to  attend  its  sessions.  A  number  of 
department  managers  were  appointed  or  elected,  heading  the  departments  of 
trap-making,  silk-working,  fruit-packing,  and  othter  work. 

The  system  of  complex  marriage,  by  which  each  man  was  married  to 
all  of  the  women  and  each  woman  to  all  of  the  men,  which  had  been  severely 
criticised,  gave  rise  to  a  community  system  of  caring  for  children.  These 
were  regarded  as  children  of  the  community  and  brought  up  together  on 
that  footing.  The  dietary  was  simple  and  wholesome,  and  the  children  were 
usually  healthy.  They  had  large  playrooms  and  community  nurses  interested 
in  their  work.  Children  were  weaned  at  nine  months  and  then  placed  in 
the  Children's  House  and  cared  for  by  nurses  serving  half-day  sl'ifts,  being 
returned  to  the  mothers  at  five  o'clock.  They  were  taken  to  the  House  agaia 
at  8:00  the  next  morning.  Mothers  were  not  separated  from  their  children, 
but  they  were  relieved  of  the  care  of  them  and  given  a  freedom  that  mo- 
thers do  not  usually  have. 

The  Oneida  community  h'ad  a  library  of  6000  volumes,  and  kept  many 
magazines  on  file.  It  had  a  play  house  for  the  children.  Amusements  in 
the  colony  were  subject  to  only  such  restrictions  as  were  required  by  good 
order.  There  was  a  summer  resort  at  Oneida  Lake,  12  miles  distant,  and 
another  on  Long  Island  Sound.  At  one  time  the  Community  had  650  acres  of 
good  land,  with  pasturage,  orchards,  vineyards,  gardens,  and  a  cannery. 
Among  the  occupations  pursued  were  shoemaking,  tailoring,  dentistry,  print- 
ing, carpentering,  and  other  trades;  but  the  chief  business  enterprises  were 
the  canning  of  fruit  and  vegetables,  the  manufacture  of  silk,  and  the  making 
of  traps.  Much  reliance  was  placed  on  a  peculiar  system  known  as  Mutual' 

Criticism,  which  originated  in  a  secret  society  of  missionary  brethren  with 
which  Mr.  Noyes  was  connected  when  a  student.  In  the  Oneida  Community 
it  became  a  principal  means  of  discipline  and  government.  There  was  a 
standing  committee  of  criticism,  selected  by  the  community  and  changed  from 
time    to   time,   thus    giving   all    an    opportunity   to   serve   both    as    critics    and' 


95 

subjects.     The   subject  was   free   to  h*ave  othets  besides  the  critics   present   if 
he  wished.     The  members  of  the  Oneida  Community  said  of   it: 

"It  is  not  easy  to  overestimate  the  useluhiess  ol  criticism  in  its  relation 
to  community  life.  There  is  hardly  a  phase  of  thht  life  in  which  it  does 
not  play  an  important  part,  it  is  the  regulator  of  industry  and  amusement — ■ 
the  incentive  to  all  improvement  the  corrector  of  all  excesses.  It  Koverns 
and  guides  all.  Criticism,  in  short,  bears  nearly  the  same  relation  to  Com- 
munism that  the  system  of  judicature  bears  to  ordinary  society.  As  society 
cannot  exist  without  governmt'nl,  and  es|K'(ially  without  a  sysem  of  courts 
and  police,  so  Communism  re(|uires  for  its  best  dovelopnient  free  mutual 
criticism." 

The  Oneida  Community  had  another  ordinance  which  they  regarded  as 
being  of  great  importance  to  their  harmony  and  general  progress.  This  was 
the  Daily  Evenitig  Meetings,  an  hour  in  length,  conducted  with  little  for- 
mality. Matters  ot  business,  of  community  order  and  government,  the  news 
of  the  day.  scientific  discussion,  home  lectures,  religious  testimony  and  dis- 
course, music,  and  everything  of  common  interest  came  in  for  its  share  oC 
attention. 

The  community  had  no  definite  regulations  respecting  hours  of  rising 
and  of  labor,  leaving  such  matters  for  the  most  part  to  the  judgment  and 
inclination  of  the  individual  members.  They  had  little  trouble  from  the  shift- 
less and  thfe  lazy.  Where  reproof  or  counsel  was  needed,  it  was  given  thru 
their   system   of   criticism   already   described. 

The  Oneida  Communists,  like  the  Shakers.  Harmonists,  and  other  Col- 
lectivists,  were  long-lived.  Many  lived  to  be  over  four  score  years  and  22 
died  between  85  and  96.  They  gave  much  attention  to  hygienic  conditions, 
living  on  simple  food  and  following  after  temperance  in  all  th'ings. 

Though  the  Community  claimed  that  its  system  was  founded  on  religion, 
and  they  had  little  faith  in  the  success  of  any  system  of  Communism  wh^ch 
had  not  a  religious  basis,  yet  they  were  practical  rather  than  theological  re- 
ligionists and  were  far  from  being  niere  formalists.  Thty  were  not  afraid  that 
religion  would  suffer  from  any  truth  which  science  might  discover,  and  the 
works  of  Huxley.  Tyndall.  and  Darwin  and  iSpencer  were  well  represented 
in  their  library.  fhcy  encouraged  cGUcation,  art.  music,  amusement,  and 
everything  wK'ich  tends  to  human  culture  and   happiness. 

The  Oneida  Community  won  the  resjject  of  all.  A  citi/eii  of  Oneida, 
but  not  of  the  Community,  wrote  to  a  Syracuse  paper: 

"The  Oneida  Community  members  are  extremely  polite,  gentlemanly  in 
dress  and  manners,  using  no  profane  or  vulgar  language,  no  cigars,  tobacco,. 
or  whiskey,  are  never  sued  and  iie\er  sue  any  one.  furnish  no  cases  for  the 
|X)lice  court,  have  no  paupers  and  no  bastard  children.  Kvery  department 
ol  their  business  is  a  model  of  neatness  and  order." 

In   1879  Mr.  Noyes  asked  the  Community  to  act  on  ceitain  modifications 


96 

of    iheir    rules    and    regulations.      Reasons    given    were,    among    others,    that 
children  growing  up  in  the  Community  had  not  thte  intense  religious  convic" 
tions   of   their   parents.      There   had   been   much   criticism,   especially   in    re- 
ligious circles,  of  the  social  radicalism  of  the  members  of  the  Community. 
TTiose  proposals  were : 

1 — That   the   practice    of   Complex   Marriages   be    given   up,    not    as    re- 
nouncing belief  in  the  principles,  but  in  deference  to  public  opinion. 

2 — That  the  members  of  the  Community  be  of  two  distinct  classes — the 
married  and  the  celibates — with  preference  to  the  latter  group. 

3 — That  all  proF>erty  and  business  be  held  in  common   as  formerly. 
4 — That  they  continue  to  live  together  in  a  common   household  and  all 
to  eat  at  a  common  table. 

5 — That  a  common  children's  department  be  conducted  as  previously. 
6 — TTiat  the  daily  evening  meetings  be  continued  as  a  means  of  moral 
and  spiritual  improvement. 

The  message  by  Mr.  Noyes  was  xonsidered  and  adopted  a  week  later, 
which  made  great  changes  in  their  institution  and  profoundly  impressed  many 
of  the  members.  This  change  was  made  on  August  26,  1879.  Twenty  mar- 
riages followed  during  the  rest  of  the  year.  Scarcely  half  a  dozen  celibates 
remained. 

The  next  important  change  was  from  community  interest  in  proF>erty 
to  a  joint  stock  corporation  with  shares  representing  individual  holdings^ 
After  sixteen  months  of  study  and  deliberation  thfe  change  was  made.  About 
twenty  went  to  California  and  others  to  Boston  and  New  \ork,  so  that  a 
disintegration  of  community  life  followed  the  social  and  business  changes.  No 
efforts  were  made  to  form  other  communities. 

The  method  of  apportioning  the  interests  in  the  community  was  to  give 
each  and  all,  without  regard  to  sex,  service,  or  usefulness,  four  shares  of 
stock,  valued  at  $100  each  for  every  year  of  membership,  and  half  the  money 
put  in  by  members  refunded  in  shares.  An  alternative  offer  wa?  an  annuity 
of  $200  with  guarantee  for  care  in  sickness  and  some  other  consaderations; 
but  only  two  persons  accepted  this.  Children  were  guaranteed  from  $80  to 
$120  a  year  (as  profits  allowed)  and  eight  months  of  schooling  until  six- 
teen years  of  age,  at  which  time  each  was  given  $200  outright.  This  divis-ioa 
proved  satisfactory  and  there  were   no  complaints. 

"The  benefits  to  character  from  long  communal  training,"  says  Mr» 
Hinds,  "was  shown."  Had  any  demanded  in  full  the  money  put  in,  this  divis- 
ion would  not  have  been  p>ossible  and  many  aged  members  might  not  have 
received  property  which  left  them  independent  in  their  old  age.  As  might 
have  been  expected,  persons  who  had  left  the  Community  dmanded  a  part 
of  the  property  and  six  sought  to  enforce  claims  through  the  courts,  but  failed 
to  establish  cause  for  action.     These  suits  cost  the  Community  $10,000. 

"Financially   the   new   company   has   been   successful,"   says   Mr.    Hinds. 


97" 

Beginning  in  1881  with  a  paid-up  capital  of  $600,000.  it  has  distributed 
quarterly  dividends  averaging  six  per  cent  per  annum,  and  accumulated  a 
considerable  surplus.  On  March  I.  1907,  the  capital  stock  of  the  Oneida 
Community.  Limited,  was  $1,200,000,  with  a  surplus  of  $112,000,  making 
a  total  of  $1,312,000.00.  in  addition  to  this,  there  was  a  s|>ecial  capital  of 
deposit  accounts  of  members,  employes,  etc.,  approximating  $392,000." 

.Altho  the  Oneida  Community  \oluntariIy  gave  up  its  communal  features, 
it  demonstrated  conclusively  the  progress,  the  benefits,  the  advantages,  and 
the  beauties  of  such  a  life.  The  years  of  growth  were  slow  and  painful,  but 
the  material  rewards  in  later  years  were  great.  From  every  point  of  view 
the  Oneida  Community  may  be  regarded  as  highly  successful. 

A  letter  from  J.  H.  Noyes,  secretary  of  the  Oneida  Community,  Limit- 
ed, shows  the  amazing  prosperity  of  this  enterprise  since  Mr.  Hinds  wrote  of 
it  in  1907.  and  also  shows  how  ownership  has  remained  largely  in  the  hands 
of  the  descendants  of  the  original  Communists: 

Ernest   S.   Wooster  April   21,    1924. 

Leesville,  Louisiana, 

Dear  Sir: — In  reply  to  yours  of  the  18th  the  changes  whch  have  taken 
place  in  the  Company's  affairs  since  the  date  of  Mr.  Hinds'  book.  1908,  are 
chiefly  such  as  would  attend  the  steady  growth  of  a  concern  of  large  calibre. 
At  thtet  time  the  total  capital  stock  was  $1,200,000.  all  common  stock.  The 
present  authorized  capital  is  $7,000,000,  of  which  over  $5,300,000  is  out- 
standing. There  was  a  common  stock-dividend  of  50 /f  in  1.913.  a  smalf 
one  of  6J/4/r   in   1913  and  another  of   MYi^f   this  year. 

We  enclose  annual  statement  as  of  January  31.  1924,  which  gfves  de- 
tails of  condition.     ^  ou  will  note  there  were  no  bank  loans  whatever. 

It  may  be  said  that  the  management  is  quite  largely  in  the  hands  ot 
the  descendants  of  the  former  community,  and  that  over  80*^^  of  the  com- 
mon stock  is  held  by  former  community  people,  their  children,  and  by 
a  considerable  group  of  workers  in  the  industrial  organizations  who  were 
not  former  members,  but  who  have  been  in  the  employ  of  the  company  for 
many  years. 

Sincerely, 

J.    H.    .\0\ES.    Secretary. 

Statement  of  condition  as  at  January  31,  1924,  shows  assets  as  follows; 
Plant — Land  and  Buildings;    Machinery;    Home  and 

Industrial    Housing    and    Equipment   $2,931,950.93 

Securities  and  other  Assets;    Inventories;    Accounts 

Receivable;    Cash,    etc  $5,028,306.12 

TOTAL $7,960,257.05 

The  following  excerpts  from  an  article  by  C.  C.  Church,  "Critic  and 
Guide"  of  May,   1924,  are  of  interest: 

"The   Oneida   Community   began   as   a    retreat    from    the    Calvinism   an(^ 


98 

Puritanism  reigning  so  largely  in  New  England  a  century  ago.  Some  of  its 
members  were  linked  with  the  leading  families  of  Vermont,  and  the  group  of 
over  two  hundred  people  were,  evidently,  a  well-assorted  lot.  They  brought' 
with  themselves  to  this  'sortie  or  raid  from  the  kingdom  of  God'  into  the  world, 
a  respectable  amount  of  wealth,  about  four  hundred  dollars  per  capita. 

"Perfectionists,  believing  in  their  own  perfectabihty,  even  before  they 
were  communists,  they  set  about  to  create  circumstances  conducive  to  salva- 
tion from  sin.  Mystics  of  indigenous  growth,  they  were  too  canny  to  ne- 
glect their  environment.  Presently,  by  modes  of  organization  the  new  com- 
munists conquered  the  pain  of  labor.  Their  workday  was  short,  sometimes  of 
only  six  hours.  £ach  producing  member  secured  variety  by  movmg  easily 
from  one  occupation  to  another.  The  commingling  of  the  sexes  m  the  in- 
dustries of  the  group,  the  men  performing  the  heavier  tasks,  added  a  pleasant 
feature.  Co-operative  methods  and  a  very  modern  dormitory  abolished  house- 
hold drudgery.  Being  successful,  the  communism  permitted  each  person 
to  taste  a  delightful  freedom  from  care.  Therefore,  according  to  the  Hand- 
book of  the  Oneida  Community,  there  were  no  shirkers  to  reckon  with., 
little  wonder,  then,  that,  while  conducting  propaganda  and  fighting  perse- 
cution, the  society  added  notably  to  its  wealth  so  that  it  was  called  rich  by 
its  observers.     However,  it  boasted  not  of  its  riches,  but  of  its  happy  living. 

"By  a  sexual  order  known  as  'complex  marriage'  this  idyllic  society 
attempted  to  fit  sexuality  for  a  well-groomed  appearance  in  the  Holy  City- 
itself.      TTius   the   community   became    famous. 

"But  a  certam  control,  male  continence,  ni  sexual  behavior  was  manda- 
tory, both  parties  must  desire  a  union,  advances  were  made  through  third 
parties,  and  every  secret  place  of  the  heart  was  penetrated  by  the  piercing 
rays  of  an  institution  known  as  'mutual  criticism.'  In  little  meetings  the  last 
hidden  motive  and  thought  of  each  member  was  tested  for  righteousness.  If 
there  was  anything  gross  in  the  sexual  attitudes  of  these  people  the  Freudian 
censor  certainly  saw  that  it  was  well-disguised.  The  ideal  was  a  refinement 
of   life   according   to   apostolic   Christianity. 

"The  exemplary  public  behavior  of  the  communists  served  as  a  par- 
tial antidote  for  their  iconoclasm.  They  were  wholesomely  industrious  and 
squarely  honest.  They  abstained  from  liquor,  tobacco,  profanity,  and  fash- 
ions in  dress.  They  despised  obscenity.  The  fact  that  the  community  almost 
entirely  escaped  venereal  disease  is  attributable  in  part  to  the  chaste  atti- 
tude towards  outsaders.  Some  new  adherents  after  joining  the  society  found 
themselves  more  willing  to  partake  of  its  privileges  than  to  do  their  part 
in  creating  these.  Such  persons  on  leaving  the  community  were  usually  given 
their  original  contribution,  or,  if  they  had  contributed  nothing,  one  hundred 
dollars.  These  payments  were  made,  however,  not  as  matters  of  right,  but 
of  liberality,  and  no  claims  for  wages  \<'ere  allowed.  As  these  conditions 
were  always  made  known  to  prospective  members,  they  looked  fair. 


99 
"Because  the  PerfecMionisl  v^roup  claimed  wilh  some  show  of  c\idencc 
\o  be  an  ideal  home  of  harmony,  the  churches  retaliated  by  claiming  that  it 
vas  an  asylum  of  vice  and  the  epitome  of  arrogance.  Newspaper  men  and 
journalists.  Hke  Frank  Leslie,  true  to  a  bent  not  uncommon  in  their  guilds, 
wrote   salacious  accounts  of  the  experiment. 

".An  im|X)rtant  obstacle  to  the  orthodox  clergy  in  their  assault  on  the 
community  was  the  absence  of  any  laws  to  prevent  it  doing  as  it  was  doing:  it 
Avas  not  illegal,  never  having  been  anticipated  by  statute-makers.  When  the 
enemies  of  complex  marriage  were  about  at  the  point  of  getting  special 
legislation  passed  in  their  favor,  the  communists  took  counsel.  Other  com- 
munities, less  offensive,  had  been  stripped  by  lawyers  of  a  little  wealth  once 
accumulated.  The  Oneida  Community  would  not  permit  itself  to  be  robbed 
of  what  its  children  and  aged  deserved.  Resistance  to  the  state  government 
would  be  criminal.  Therefore,  in  August.  1879.  the  society  formally  with- 
drew from  the  practice  of  complex  mairiage,  although  a  belief  in  the  princi- 
ple was  reasserted. 


100 

KORESHAN    UNITY 

1889  to   Present  Time 

Cyius  R.  Teed,  founder  of  the  Koreshan  Unity  at  Estero,  Florida,  about 
1889,  was  a  physician  who  claimed  to  be  a  prophet  under  control  of  supernal 
forces.  The  Persian  form  of  Cyrus  is  Koresh.  and  this  is  the  name  which  he 
gave  to  the  religion,  calling  it  Koreshanity,  which  was  to  supplant  Christian- 
ity. A  part  of  his  creed  was  a  belief  in  Communism,  and  this  is  the  material 
basis  of  the  group  at  Estero,  Florida.  The  city  was  incorporated  with  110 
miles  of  territory,  which  was  to  provide  for  the  immense  number  of  converts 
expected.  At  one  time  a  following  of  10,000  was  claimed,  with  200  persons 
in  the  colony.  The  city  was  laid  cut  to  be  a  magnificent  world  center,  but 
has  not  grown  materially  in  numbers,  nor  have  the  expected  improvements 
been  made.  The  celibate  conditions  imposed  have  had  the  usual  deterrent 
effect.  The  community  is  conducted  in , much  the  same  way  that  many  of  the 
religious  communities  have  been  conducted,  except  that  it  has  not  had  the 
vigor  or  energy  to  produce,  much  of  the  living  having  always  come  from  the 
outside  instead  of  having  been   produced   from  within. 

Peter  Hanson,  a  member  of  the  Llano  Colony,  but  for  some  years  a 
member  of  the  Koreshan  Unity,  had  little  to  add  to  the  account  given  by 
Hinds  as  regards  the  colony,  which  reached  its  zenith  some  years  ago.  The 
account  furnished  by  Mr.  Hanson  claimed  that  there  were  200  residents, 
and  that  the  value  of  the  property  was  a  quarter  of  a  million  dollars,  tho  this 
included  some  items  not  usually  considered  as  quick  assets.  There  were  7000 
acres  of  land.  Much  attention  was  given  to  education,  and  this  includes 
musical  education.  Boys  were  taught  trades.  This  was  a  description  of  con- 
tritions in    1908.     Mr.   Hanson  adds: 

"Since  then  the  colony  has  been  on  a  decline,  some  of  the  property  has 
been  lost,  and  the  membership  has  been  reduced  to  about  70.  The  colony 
is  dormant,  like  a  seed  before  it  sprouts.  The  fact  that  it  has  held  together 
ihe  last  16  years  against  self-seekers,  and  against  all  kinds  of  odds  under 
which  other  organizations  would  not  have  lasted  a  week  speaks  well  for  the 
cohesive  elements  so  necessary  in  a  colony.  Koresh  declared  himself  to  be 
a  preparer  of  the  way  for  the  New  Order;  his  personal  mission  was  com- 
pleted in  1892.  ^'  *  ^'  When  the  destructive  forces  of  capital  and  labor  have 
-destroyed  each  other,  the  New  Order  will  be  established."  Mr.  Hanson  is  still 
an  enthusiastic  believer  in  the  creed  and  in  the  other  principles  of  Koreshanity, 
though  not  now  a  resident  of  the  community. 

However,  a  letter  from  another  ex-member  must  also  be  considered.  This 
-man  is  no  admirer  of  the  Unity.  In  the  absence  of  an  authentic  statement 
l)y  a  member  of  the  Unity,  the  compiler  of  this  volume  has  been  couipelled 
•to  rely  on  such  sources  as  he  was  able  to  reach,  and  the  letter  from  vvhicli 


101 

quotations  are  given  below  was  not   friendly  in  its  expressions, 

"The  fir5t  convert  was  a  Mr.  Dampkohlcr.  wlio  had  320  acres  at  Estcro. 
Teed  promised  Dampkohler  all  things  ^-  ^'  •••  Finally  Dami)kohler  sued  Teed 
and  the  lawyers  compromised,  leaving  Teed  160  acres  and  the  balance  was 
absorbed  by  the  lawyers,  leaving  Dampkohler  nothing  ''•  '^^  '''  There  must 
have  been  thousands  of  people  who  have  passed  thru  the  colony  since  then. 
The  present  membership  is  51  voters  and  perhaps  10  children.  Fifteen  years 
ago  they  had  200.  and  I  think  that  is  the  highest  number.  They  now  hold 
about  2000  acres;  in  1908  they  had  7000.  but  lost  4000  by  foreclosure.  They 
paid  $12,000  lor  worthless,  mostly  overflowed,  land.  No  industries  have 
been  conducted  with  any  semblance  of  sanity.  The  only  ones  now  paying  are 
a  shop  in  which  they  charge  all  the  traffic  will  bear,  and  the  printcry  by 
which  they  issue  their  Flaming  Sword  ••'•  •••  *•'•  Only  a  few  members  come  now, 
pojsibly  two  or  three  a  year." 

However,  the  Koreshans  proved  themselves  heroic  in  the  matter  of 
staying  with  their  community  thru  hardships.  The  same  correspondent  tells 
of  their  living  on  cornmeal  mush  and  corn  bread,  and  not  enough  of  it. 
for  months  at  a  time.  Koresh  was  absolute  ruler,  and  his  word  was  not 
questioned.  .\  complaint  made  against  him  was  that  he  lived  in  luxury  at 
at  times  when  the  other  members  of  the  Unity  lived  in  extremely  moderate 
circumstances,  though  Hinds  says  that  Victoria,  his  associate,  lived  m  ex- 
treme poverty  with  the  others.  Even  the  one  who  wrote  in  bitte^iess  admits 
that  the  property  now  owned  is  worth  about  $200,000.  though  there  are  few 
improvements,  and  none  of  any  considerable  value.  They  publish  another 
paper  also,  the  .American  Eagle,  but  it  is  not  a  propaganda  paper. 

Of  chief  interest,  however,  is  the  theory  upon  which  this  colony  is 
founded.  It  is  known  as  Cellular  Cosmogeny.  It  admits  that  the  earth  is 
round,  but  asserts  that  we  live  inside  of  it  instead  of  outside.  Their  litera- 
ture   says: 

"The  fundamental  premise  of  the  Copernican  system  of  astronomy  is 
the  hypothesis  that  the  surface  of  the  earth  on  which  we  live  is  convex. 
The  well-known  phenomenon  of  the  disappearance  of  a  ship's  hull  beyond  the 
hori/nn  of  the  surface  of  the  sea  is  one  of  the  principal  so-called  proofs 
offered  in  support  of  the  popular  theory;  it  is  constantly  being  urged  as  an 
objection  to  the  Koreshan  conclusion  that  the  earth  is  a  hollow  globe,  with 
its  habitable  surface  concave  instead  of  convex.  If  the  usual  theory  were 
true,  specific  tests  would  verify  it;  as  it  is  fallacious,  ocular  tests  are  suf- 
■  ficient   to  disprove   it   and  to  overthrow  the  entire   system. 

In  order  to  appreciate  the  value  and  force  of  such  experiments  of  ob- 
-crvation  as  have  been  conducted  during  the  past  few  years  by  the  Ko- 
leshan  Scientific  Staff,  it  is  necessary  to  consider  the  ratio  of  the  earth's 
curvature,  and  the  claims  of  the  advocates  of  the  old  school  of  astronomy. 
We  desire  to  examine  the  subject  just  as  it  is  presented  by  the  astronomer. 


102 

and  subject  the  theory  to  the  test  of  the  facts  of  observation.  The  so-called 
proof  is  an  ocular  one,  used  hundreds  of  years  before  the  invention  of  the 
telescope;  and  it  is  but  fair,  in  a  scientific  age,  to  submit  it  to  ocular  test, 
with  the  power  of  vision   increased  by  telescope   aid. 

"If  the  surface  of  the  sea  were  convex,  the  water  line  of  the  horizon 
^vouId  he  the  simple  apex  of  the  arc  of  the  water's  curvature.  If  the  hull  of 
a  vessel  disappeared  on  a  rotund  surface,  it  would  do  so  because  of  the  sim- 
ple fact  that  it  had  passed  to  a  point  below  the  visual  line  extending  from 
the  eye  over  the  apex  or  horizon.  In  other  words,  the  hull  would  be  ren- 
dered absolutely  invisible  by  the  intervening  hill  of  water.  We  desire  to  state 
the  question  fairly,  so  that  there  can  be  no  quibbling  concerning  the  premise 
upon  which  the  old  system  is  made  to   rest. 

"A  convex  earth  25,000  miles  in  circumference  would  have  a  curvature 
of  8  inches  to  the  mile,  or,  according  to  the  geometrical  formula,  the  square 
of  the  distance  in  miles,  multiplied  by  8  inches,  gives  the  declination  in  inches, 
from  the  tangent  line.  In  two  miles  the  curvature  downward  from  the  tan- 
gent would  be  32  inches;  3  miles,  6  feet;  4  miles,  10  feet  and  8  incbes;  8 
miles,  42  feet  and  8  inches  '""  ^'  ^". 

"On  August  27,  1899  a  target  3  feet  broad  and  6  feet  in  length  was 
suspended  over  the  wall  constituting  the  base  of  the  lighthouse  on  the  ntw 
Government  pier,  Chicago;  the  bottom  of  the  target  just  touched  the  water. 
A  4j/2-foot  mounted  telescope,  with  3-inch  object  glass,  was  placed  at  an  ele- 
vation of  1  1  feet  above  the  water,  on  the  pier  at  the  old  World's  Fair  grounds, 
a  little  over  8  miles  south  of  the  lighthouse.  To  the  unaided  eye  at  1  1  feet 
elevation,  about  one  third  of  the  lighthouse  tower  appeared  to  be  below  the 
horizon;  only  the  tops  of  the  engine-houses  could  be  seen  above  the  water 
hne.  The  new  Government  pier  itself  was  entirely  invisible.  Yachts  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  lighthouse  appeared  about  half  sail  "down." 

"Now,  we  meet  the  so-called  proof  of  the  earth's  convexity  squarely  face 
to  face.  Is  it  true  or  not?  If  it  is  true,  when  we  view  the  lighthouse  thru 
the  telescope,  from  the  same  elevation  as  with  the  naked  eye,  no  part  of  the 
objects  apparently  below  the  horizon  can  be  seen;  only  as  much  of  the 
tower  as  stands  above  the  line  B  in  the  diagram  we  have  referred  to,  would 
appear  in  the  telescopic  field;  it  would  be  physically  impossible  for  it  to  be 
otherwise.  The  telescope  was  directed  to  the  lighthouse;  a  clear  focus  was 
obtained,  and  careful  views,  extending  over  a  period  of  three  hours,  were  wit- 
nessed by  about  fifty  persons  who  were  present  on  the  pier.  We  saw  the 
tower  to  the  line  B;  the  wall  of  masonry  at  the  base  of  the  tower,  and  the 
target  below  B  down  to  the  water's  surface.  The  action  of  the  waves  against 
the  wall  was  clearly  observed. 

"The  target  was  a  special  one,  with  horizontal  stripes  of  red  and  white. 
We  counted  the  stripes  on  the  target  to  definitely  ascertain  whether  or  not 
we  observed  the  whole  of  it;    there  was  not  a  square   foot  of  it  invisible! 


103 

Yachts  sailing  al>out  the  pier,  appearing  half  mast  "down"  to  the  naked  eye, 
were  visible,  hulls  and  all,  down  to  the  surface  on  which  they  sailed.  '•"  "^  ^' 

"Immortality  depends  upon  the  conservation  of  the  pneumic  and  psychic 
energies  of  being,  and  their  direction  and  appropriation  thru  scientific  deter- 
minations of  the  mind,  dependent  upon  the  wisdom  of  the  Shepherd  or 
Messiah  of  this  age,  who  will  lead  the  sheep  of  the  fold. 

"We  have  no  room  for  those  who  cannot  recognize  the  Messianic  law; 
especially,  have  we  no  room  in  the  interior  orders  of  our  institution.  Our 
literature  sufficiently  sets  forth  our  religious  and  social  principles,  so  as  to 
leave  no  misapprehension  of  what  we  teach.  We  have  now  two  distinct  local 
divisions  of  our  headquarters;  one  in  Estero,  Rorida,  and  one  in  Chicago. 
Our  publishing  house  is  located  in  Chicago.  Our  Capitol  City  is  Estero,  but 
remotely  a  developed  Capitol.  People  coming  to  us  in  Estero  come  to  a 
"simon-pure"  pioneer  life,  one  of  strenuosity  and  sacrifice.  We  have  peo- 
ple, educated  and  refined,  who  have  left  the  attractions  of  the  worldly  ex- 
istence and  are  happy  in  the  life  chosen  here.  We  have  those  who  have  been 
through  the  severest  features  of  this  pioneer  work  for  eight  or  nine  years,  and 
are  still  happy  in  their  efforts  to  plant  for  future  generations  the  habitation  of 
liberty. 

"Our  institution  is  one  of  common  interest.  We  hold  all  things  in  com- 
mon; and  so  far  as  financial  claim  is  concerned,  there  is  no  difference  be- 
tween one  who  has  placed  one  penny  in  the  common  treasury,  and  the  one 
who  has  contributed  one  hundred  thousand.  No  person  joining  our  com- 
munity can  claim  anything  upon  the  basis  of  having  contributed  a  large 
amount  of  substance  to  the  treasury  of  the  commonwealth.  We  find  the 
commonwealth  idea  a  more  practical  and  cTieerful  incentive  to  industry  than 
the  satanic  system  of  competism  which,  in  opposition  to  the  gospel  of  the 
Lord  Christ,  now  holds  universal  sway,  and  is  at  the  foundaton  of  all  the 
woe,  misery,  and  death  in  the  world.  The  commonwealth  system  obviates 
"the  love  of  money,"  which  is  "the  root  of  all  evil." 

"We  are  in  no  sense  socialists  after  the  order  of  modern  socialism.  So- 
cialism is  individualism;  Koreshanity  is  imperialism.  Nor  do  we  hold  all 
things  in  common  upon  the  basis  of  equality,  for  equality  does  not  belong  to 
the  order  of  life  in  any  domain  of  the  universe.  Our  system  presupposes  the 
possibility  of  an  equitable  adjustment  of  education,  industry,  and  commerce, 
founded  upon  the  laws  of  order  as  they  obtain  in  every  department  of  being. 
All  people  coming  into  the  institution  are  expected  to  abide  the  issues  of 
progress  in  the  body  to  adjust  according  to  compatibility  and   adaptation. 

"Modern  socialism  is  entirely  theoretical  and  experimental.  It  assumes 
that  because  kingdoms  and  democracies  have  failed  to  meet  the  requirements 
of  the  age,  in  such  an  adjustment  of  the  race  as  to  supply  its  wants  and 
insure  its  happiness,  the  institution  of  socialism  will  answer  the  end  in  view. 
Socialism   as   an    experiment   would  prove   a   disastrous    failure,   because   it   is 


104 

an  attempt  to  place  society  upon  a  basis  which  is  entirely  contrary  to  the 
laws  of  order  as  they  obtain  in  the  universe  as  a  whole.  Sociahsm  is  the 
insanity  of  democracy. 

"There  are  certain  sociological  facts  with  which  we  are  familiar,  be- 
cause we  have  put  the  principles  into  operation  and  know  that  they  will 
work.  We  are  practicing  ownership  of  our  land  by  the  state — we  mean  the 
state  of  the  Koreshan  Unity — and  we  attained  this  pre-eminence  directly,  not 
through  the  roundabout  way  of  the  single  tax  principle.  We  knew  that  the 
direct  way  was  the  better  way,  and  applied  it.  Our  state  owns  its  land.  We 
have  already  practically  demonstrated  the  possibility  of  collective  ownership 
of  the  land.  We  pursue  our  system  of  commerce  on  the  line  of  the  same 
principle.  We  conduct  our  industrial  system  on  the  basis  of  collective,  not 
individual,    propriety. 

"We  have  placed  ourselves  in  contiguity  with,  the  greatest  channel  of 
international  commerce,  namely  the  waterways  of  the  world,  that  we  may 
take  immediate  advantage  of  the  most  vital  avenues  of  commercial  life. 
Agriculture  is  the  function  of  the  liver;  commerce  is  the  function  of  the 
heart.  We  do  not  buy  from  or  sell  to  one  another;  therefore  there  is  no  cost 
as  pertaining  to  our  own  transactions.  We  have  annihilated  the  principles 
of  labor,  cost,  and  price,  and  have  no  use  for  the  terms  in  our  transactions 
with  one  another.  That  there  may  be  no  misunderstanding  with  such  as  de-. 
sire  to  entertain  the  question  of  a  trial  of  our  system,  we  will  state  that  we 
are  in  the  pioneer  stage  of  our  development;  that  we  have  not  yet  reduced 
labor  to  a  luxury,  for  our  people  are  performing  some  drudgery;  but  they 
are  doing  it  cheerfully,  in  the  expectation  that  in  the  near  future  our  prin- 
ciples will  have  attained  to  a  degree  of  fruition. 

"We  are  celibate  in  doctrine  and  life ;  we  are  communistic  in  our  pos- 
session of  property;  we  are  obedient  to  all  state  and  municipal  authority:  but 
we  advocate  a  peaceable  revolution  in  the  administration  of  human  affairs, 
knownig  that  the  time  is  near  at  hand  when  the  people  v^ll  be  reinstated  in 
their  rights;  when  the  governments  of  the  world  shall  yield  authority  to  the 
King  of  kings  and  Lord  of  lords,  who  is  the  blessed  and  only  Potentate,  and 
who  cometh  speedily  to  reign  in  the  earth. 

"There  are  certain  steps  necessary  for  permanent  connection  with  the 
Ecclesia.  As  a  rule,  members  remain  six  months  in  the  outer  Court — the 
Investigative  degree  of  the  Society  Arch-Triumphant.  During  this  time  it  is 
expected  that  the  ordinary  vices,  if  obtaining  with  the  person  desiring  to  pro- 
gress in  all  the  degrees  of  ethical  culture,  will  have  been  overcome.  We  mean 
profanity,  the  use  of  intoxicants  and  tobacco,  and  other  vices  not  mentioned 
but  generally  understood.  When  people  come  into  our  body  with  the  claim 
that  they  have  left  all  and  followed  the  divine  teaching,  that  "all"  signifies 
all  that  the  term  implies.  To  leave  all  is  to  sacrifice  everything  pertaining 
to  the  individual  loves,  and  to  so  revolutionize  the  love  that  it  will  pertain  to 


105 

\he  general  uses  rather  than  to  personal  desire  as  founded  upon  individual 
and  selfish  loves. 

"When  a  family  comes  into  the  Koreshan  Unity,  it  comes  with  the  un- 
derstanding that  there  is  a  separation;  that  the  children  no  longer  belong  to 
the  parents,  but  to  the  institution,  and  that  the  Unity  claims  the  right  to  direct 
the  education,  industry,  and  care  of  the  children  exclusively,  without  any  re- 
gard to  what  the  parents  may  suppose  to  be  the  right  thing.  The  male  child- 
ren belong  to  the  institution  until  they  are  twenty-one.  and  the  female  child- 
ren until  they  are  eighteen.  This  limit  is  the  one  placed  by  law.  and  all 
children  should  be  taught  that  they  belong  to  the  Unity  and  not  to  their 
parents.  This  is  a  fundamental  principle  of  transposition  from  the  sensual  na- 
tuie  to  the  immortal  j)lane  of  being. 

"Families  desiring  to  enter  our  organization  should  first  send  for  cards 
of  application  to  membership  in  the  Unity.  Their  initiation  is  first  into  the 
Society  .Arch-Triumphant.  They  are  suppnjsed  to  enter  upon  a  probationary 
period  .of  six  months.  This  allows  time  for  consideration  and  acquaintance 
with  our  principles.  We  do  not  always  compel  applicants  to  remain  out  of  the 
body  until  the  expiration  of  this  probation,  for  sometimes  our  acquaintance 
with  those  who  wish  to  associate  with  us  enables  us  to  insure  them  an  earlier 
entrance  into  full  fellowship.  By  a  direct  action  of  the  Ecclesia,  under  cir- 
cumstances warranting  it.  members  can  be  admitted  at  once.  Moral  character, 
religious  proclivities,  devotion  to  humanity,  and  other  considerations,  are  re- 
garded where  direct  entrance  to  the  Ecclesia  is  a  question  of  concern. 

"If  you  enter  tne  Communistic  Order,  all  you  {wssess  goes  into  the  treas- 
ury of  the  community — whether  it  be  labor  or  accumulated  wealth  in  pos- 
se>;;ion  before  you  come  to  us.  You  share  equally  in  the  wealth  of  the 
order  with  every  member.  If  by  communistic  fellowship  there  is  amassed 
a  great  accumulation  of  wealth,  you  are  equal  possessor  of  that  accumula- 
tion. It  is  a  great  mistake  for  one  to  imagine  that  if  he  gives  up  wealth 
to  the  order,  the  favor  is  all  on  one  side;  that  one  makes  himself  poor,  while 
making  the  society  rich.  If  your  preference  lies  in  the  direction  of  the  mari- 
tal or  the  co-operative  order,  so  express  your  preference,  and  your  case  will 
considered  by  the  proper  authority. 


106 

CHRISTIAN    COMMUNITY    OF 
UNIVERSAL   BROTHERHOOD 

DOUKHOBOURS 
Previously  in  Russia;  In  America  1899  to  Present  Time 

The  Doukhobours  (Spirit- Wrestlers)  have  made  one  of  the  most  suc- 
cessful demonstrations  in  co-operative  colonization  and  community  life  of 
all  peoples.  Moreover,  their  colonies  are  among  the  largest  ever  established. 
They  well  deserve  study  by  all  w^ho  are  interested  in  communities,  for  not 
only  their  technique  but  also  their  sterling  principles  give  them  a  deserved 
place  near  the  head  of  the  list.  Not  all  may  agree  with  the  rather  low  esteem 
in  which  they  hold  education,  but  few  can  quarrel  with  the  spirit  of  their 
institution.  Perhaps  their  experience  justifies  the  small  value  they  place 
on  education,  and  a  more  favorable  experience  might  cause  them  to  change 
their  views. 

From  a  small  volume  entitled  "The  Message  of  the  Doukhobours,"  com- 
piled by  Alexander  M.  Evalenko  and  used  by  the  "Christians  of  the  Univer- 
sal Brotherhood,"  as  the  Doukhobours  frequently  call  themselves,  we  take 
the  following: 

Vladimir  Tchertkoff  says  of  their  martyrdom  in  Russia: 

"The  Doukhobours  first  appeared  in  the  middle  of  the  (8th  century  and 
soon  their  numbers  had  so  greatly  increased  that  the  Qovernment  and  the 
Church,  considering  the  sect  to  be  peculiarly  obnoxious,  started  a  cruel  per- 
secution. The  foundation  of  the  Doukhobours'  teaching  consists  in  the  be- 
lief that  the  Spirit  of  God  is  present  in  the  soul  of  man,  and  directs  him  by 
its  word  within  him.  They  understand  the  coming  of  Christ  in  the  flesh  '^  '^  '^ 
The  whole  teaching  of  the  Doukhobours  is  penetrated  with  the  gosj>el  of  love. 
•'  ■•*  ■•■  On  fixed  days  they  assemble  for  prayer  meetings  at  which  they  read 
prayers  and  sing  hymns  or  psalms  as  they  call  them,  and  greet  each  other 
fraternally  with  low  bows,  thereby  acknowledging  every  man  as  a  bearer 
of  the  Divine  Spirit.  ^  *  ^ 

"The  Doukhobours  found  alike  their  mutual  relations  and  their  relations 
to  other  people^ — and  not  only  to  people  but  to  all  living  creatures — exclu- 
sively on  love,  and  therefore  they  hold  all  people  equal.  '^  *  *  They  consider 
murder,  violence,  and  in  general  all  relations  to  living  beings  not  based  on 
love  as  opposed  to  their  conscience  and  to  the  will  of  God.  They  are  in- 
dustrious and  abstemious  in  their  lives  and  always  truthful  in  speech,  ac- 
counting lying   a   great  sin." 

Their  persecutions  began  in  the  latter  part  of  the  18th  century.  Em- 
peror Alexander  said  in  1816:  "All  the  measures  of  severity  exhaused  upon 
the  Spirit-Wrestlers  during  the  thirty  years  up  to  1801  not  only  did  not  de- 
stroy this  sect,  but  more  and  more  multiplied  the  number  of  its  adherents." 


107 

Later  many  were  transported  to  Tiflis,  which  \\  as  thought  to  !>«  an  almost 
sterile  district.  However,  they  flourished  and  became  prosperous  there.  They 
amassed  wealth,  but  one  of  their  number,  conspiring  with  officials,  betrayed 
them  and  seized  much  of  their  wealth.  Some  had  been  conscripted  into  the 
army,  but  now  the  majority  of  the  12,000  Doukhobours  took  a  firm  stand 
against  military  service,  and  to  this  they  have  remained  true  ever  since.  They 
also  burned  all  of  their  arms,  so  no  participation  in  violence  became  |>os$ible. 

New  persecutions  broke  out  again  later.  Many  of  the  sect  were  killed, 
and  large  numbers  were  imprisoned.  Hogged,  and  tortured.  Disease  took  many 
as  a  consequence  of  deportations.  Large  numbers  of  them  were  distributed,  a 
family  to  a  village,  in  hostile  districts. 

An  instance  of  their  extreme  non-resistance  is  related.  A  Doukhobour 
heard  some  one  at  his  barn.  He  ran  out  and  saw  a  man  about  ready  to 
mount  a  horse  and  gallop  away.  "Stop,  stop!"  he  called,  and  his  persuasive 
tones  compelled  obedience.  1  he  Georgian  who  was  about  to  steal  the  horse 
was  told:  "1  only  wanted  to  tell  you  that  you  need  not  be  afraid,  and  that 
you  should  not  consider  this  horse  as  a  stolen  one;  if  you  want  to  take  it. 
do  so."     The  thief  did  not  take  the  horse. 

In  1897  the  Doukhobours  got  an  opportunity  to  present  a  petition  to  the 
Lmpress  of  Russia  explaining  their  sufferings  and  asking  to  be  permitted  to 
settle  elsewhere  or  to  emigrate.  Friends  in  England  and  America  assisted, 
particularly  Leo  Tolstoy  and  the  Quakers  and  V.  Tchertkoff.  Money  was 
raised  so  that  eventually,  after  staying  for  some  years  on  the  island  of  Cy- 
prus, the  Doukhobours  landed  in  Canada. 

On  January  23,  1899,  2100  Doukhobours  arrived  in  Halifax,  and  four 
days  later  1974  more  arrived.  A  large  parly  of  men  went  at  once  to  cut 
limber  for  storehouses  and  dwellings  and  to  prepare  for  the  others.  Many 
went  to  work  on  the  railroads,  turning  their  wages  into  the  society. 

The  New  York  Evening  Sun  on  September  I,  1912,  published  an  account 
of  the   Doukhobour?   from   which   the   following  is   taken: 

"It  is  ten  years  now  since  the  Canadian  government  yave  the  Doukho- 
bours 320,000  acres  of  land  which  at  the  very  lowest  valuation  must  be 
worth  $30  an  acre  now.  True  to  their  co-operative  principles,  the  Douk- 
hobours cultivated  one  great  tract  at  the  center  of  the  land  nllolled  to  them. 
2000  homesteads  of  160  acres  each,  ecjual  to  15  acres  for  each  settler.  When 
they  came  to  ask  for  their  titles,  they  did  not  ask  for  individual  patents,  but 
for  the  whole  piece.  1  hey  surely  mcl  the  spirit  and  the  object  (A  the  law, 
but  there  was  no  provision  made  in  the  law,  the  authorities  said,  for  the 
<nmmunal  method  of  cultivation,  combining  so  many  quarter-sections  into 
one  huge  tract  of  proi>erty.  So  the  authorities  held  up  their  title  and  finally 
came  forward  with  a  thinly-veiled  ultimatum  to  either  become  British  subjects 
<'r  else  forfeit  the  land.  The  Doukhobours  gavir  up  the  land  without  a  mo 
inenl's  hesitation. 


108 

"The  Doukhobours  retained  their  freedom  and  fifteen  acres  a  home- 
stead. It  was  nothing  new  for  thenri  to  contend  with  official  coercion.  ^  ^  * 
About  2000  of  them  remained  on  whjit  was  left  of  their  land  and  the  others 
went  far  off  into  British  Columbia,  where  they  purchased  10,000  acres  at  the 
junction  of  the  Columbia  and  Kootenay  rivers. 

"They  will  have  no  police,  for  there  is  no  crime  among  them  '^*  ^  '""  They 
will  not  have  anything  to  do  with  officials  except  pay  their  taxes  ^  '^  ^'Says 
a  noted  Quaker:  'A  people  who  will  not  fight  or  steal  or  drink  anything 
intoxicating,  or  smoke  or  use  profane  language  or  lie,  have  a  character  which 
will  bring  forth  the  best  qualities  of  Christian  citizenship.' 

"In  connection  with  the  sawmills,  where  also  all  lumber  needed  for  the 
buildings  is  turned  out,  there  is  a  planing  mill.  Finished  lumber  is  made  there 
and  mouldings;  all  furniture,  tables,  and  chairs  used  in  the  houses  are  made 
by  their  labor.  An  enormous  pumping  plant  is  now  nearing  completion.  When 
this  plant  is  in  working  order,  the  fields  will  be  covered  by  a  network  of 
pipes.  In  connection  with  the  pumping  plant,  a  generating  station  will  be 
built  to  supply  light  and  power  to  the  whole  colony.  System  and  co-ordina* 
tion  of  effort  permeate  the  whole  existence  of  the  Doukhobour  communities; 
everything  is  done  upon  joint  consideration ;  no  labor  is  wasted  in  single- 
handed  effort,  and  none  is  undertaken  unless  the  requisite  number  of  hands 
can  be  put  on  the  job  to  effect  the  maximum  saving  of  time  coupled  with 
highest  efficiency.  No  one  is  ever  left  idle,  except  upon  reaching  the  age  of 
60,  when  men  settle  down  to  enjoy  their  well-earned  rest.  In  summer  time 
all  work  is  suspended  between  hours  of  11  to  3  in  the  afternoon.  All  work 
stops  at  noon  on  Saturdays. 

"The  tilling  of  the  land  is  all  done  in  one  piece.  There  are  no  hedges 
nor  divisions  of  the  whole  2900  acres  as  far  as  ownership  is  concerned.  Men 
are  put  to  work  at  whatever  task  they  are  best  suited  for,  and  may  be  chang- 
ed to  another,  more  congenial  to  them,  if  it  means  greater  efficiency.  Some 
are  at  work  in  the  fields,  while  others  are  engaged  in  machine  shops,  others  in 
gardening,  etc.     Laziness  is  very  seldom  met. 

"A  writer  in  the  Victoria  Daily  Times  says:  'It  is  the  socialist  Utopia* 
the  reahzation  of  equality  which  is  being  advocated  for  the  rest  of  the  world 
to-day.' 

"There  are  no  cares  as  to  where  the  next  day's  meals  are  to  come  from. 
There  is  no  stinting  or  grudging  to  provide  sustenance  when  one's  strength 
has  ebbed  in  declining  years.  There  are  no  divisions  between  'mine'  and 
'thine';  no  man  is  richer  than  his  fellow;  therefore  there  are  no  jealousies  oi 
envy  as  to  the  possessions  of  another. 

"Cares  as  to  money  are  totally  absent.  One  member  of  the  executive 
does  all  the  outside  buying  and  selling.  Any  money  received  by  individual 
members  from  outside  sources  is  turned  into  the  treasury.  It  would  have  no 
purchasing  value  within   the   coramunity,   nor   is   there   any  need   for  it,   for 


109 

food  and  clothing  and  all  necessaries  of  life  are  doled  out  from  ihe  variouj  de- 
partments in  charge  of  these  matters. 

"The  government  is  in  the  hands  of  the  people,  effectively  and  simply, 
altho  without  any  machinery  of  government  whatever.  Once  a  week  all  per- 
sons, both  men  and  women,  who  have  reached  years  of  mature  understanding, 
crowd  into  the  large  assembly  house,  which  has  a  capacity  of  2000.  and  dis- 
cuss the  affairs  of  the  community.  At  these  meetings,  held  every  Sunday 
afternoon,  the  manager  of  each  department  is  given  his  instructions  accord- 
ing to  the  popular  sentiment.  No  definite  time  is  specified  at  the  ap|X>mlment 
of  an  officer,  but  he  holds  office  as  long  as  he  does  his  work  well.  This  is 
the  iniftalive,  referendum  and  recall  system  without  the  cumbersome  machin- 
ery in  use  at  the  present  day. 

"All  the  houses  are  built  pretty  much  after  the  same  plan.  Like  every- 
thing built  or  used  or  worn  by  the  Doukhobours,  their  residences  are  devoid 
of  all  elaborateness  or  ornamentation  of  any  kind,  but  emnienlly  substantial 
and  practical  for  all  intents  and  purposes.  They  are  built  in  pairs,  and  at 
a  respectful  distance  from  other  buildings  foi  sanitary  reasons  and  fire  isola- 
tion. There  is  an  abundance  of  air  and  light.  Each  dwelling  accommodates 
no  less  than  thirty  people.  Married  folks  have  double  bedrooms.  .All  beds 
are  taken  out  of  doors  every  morning  and  given  a  thorough  sunning  and 
airing.  At  the  rear  of  each  pair  ol  buildings  there  is  a  bath  house,  with  a  boil- 
er in  the  center,  supplying  steam  for  the  hot  room  and  hot  water  for-  the 
numerous  baths  around. 

".Ail  the  women  of  each  household  take  turns  at  cooking  and  baking  the 
bread  for  all  the  inmates.  The  food  is  very  apf)€tizing  and  well  cooked. 
Needless  to  say.  the  Doukhobours  eat  no  meat  or  eggs.  The  first  impression 
which  strikes  a  stranger  entering  a  Doukhobour  settlement  at  night  is  the  ab- 
solute stillness  of  the  place,  which  at  first  seems  almost  uncanny.  One  real- 
izes before  long  that  this  is  due  to  the  absence  of  either  dogs  or  poultry  in 
the  place.  The  Doukhobours  have  no  use  for  either,  since  chickens  cannot 
be  raised  or  sold  for  any  other  purpose  than  eating,  and  dogs  would  have 
nothing  to  watch. 

"The  men  look  hale  and  sturdy  and  the  children  are  almost  without 
exception  pictures  of  blossoming  health.  ^'  *  ^  All  have  an  inquiring,  in- 
quisitive look,  for  strangers  are  not  seen  every  day;  yet  disrespect  is  totally 
absent  "^  ^'  ^'  The  top  floor  of  the  great  assembly  house  contains  several 
big  class  rooms. 

"They  have  a  large  and  well-appointed  hospital  at  Brilliant,  and  they 
have  everything  there  except  doctors,  nurses,  or  inmates.  The  building  is  in- 
habited by  a  su|>erannuated  and  very  affable  janitor,  tach  dwelling  com- 
prises two  special  emergency  rooms — one  of  them  adapted  for  women  in  con- 
finement. 

"The    Doukhobours    show    great    consideration    and    solicitude    foi    their 


no 

women.  As  a  general  rule,  no  family  is  incumbered  with  more  than  two  cr 
three  children.  Equality  of  sexes  has  reached  its  highest  expression  in  their 
social  life.  Women  are  recognized  as  being  competent  to  judge  upon  all  of 
the  affairs  of  their  community.  Not  only  do  they  share  in  all  administrative 
work  and  take  part  in  all  the  councils,  but  they  also  perform  all  the  religious 
rites  and  conduct  divine  services  on  the  same  footing  with  men.  Prayers 
are  always  held  in  the  open,  weather  permitting.  The  congregation  always 
stands,  not  only  bareheaded,  but  barefooted  as  well,  in  summer.  Prayer 
books  they  have  none,  neither  is  there  a  place  of  worship  in  the  direct  sense. 
They  have  no  written  laws  or  rules  and  no  written  prayers.  There  is  noth- 
ing fixed  or  moulded  in  their  worship — it  is  a  live  and  spontaneous  religion. 

"The  figure  of  Peter  Verigin,  the  leader  of  the  entire  Doukhobour  sect 
now  in  America,  is  one  of  almost  awe-inspiring  personality.  He  is  the  seventh 
leader  of  the  Doukhobour  sect,  which  has  been  in  existence  for  200  years. 
Preceding  him  was  a  woman,  Lookeria  Vassilevna.  She  found  and  marked 
Verigin  for  leadership  when  he  was  a  mere  boy.  He  belonged  to  a  very 
wealthy  family  of  the  Doukhobour  persuasion  and  he  followed  her  implicitly. 
He  was  given  a  thorough  education  and  prepared  very  painstakingly  to  as- 
sume this  important  post,  which  she  passed  on  to  him  on  her  deathbed.  No 
sooner  had  he  assumed  the  leadership  than  he  started  a  movement  of  passive 
resistance  to  the  Russian  government's  system  of  compulsory  military  serv- 
ice. He  was  soon  seized  by  the  authorities  and  exiled  to  Siberia.  He  was  kept 
in  exile  for  sixteen  years — long  after  the  last  of  the  Doukhobours  migrated 
from   Russia.     But  he  never  relinquished  leadership. 

"He  maintained  a  constant  correspondence  with  Count  Leo  Tolstoy,  who 
was  an  ardent  champion  of  the  Doukhobours'  cause.  Tolstoy  never  sold  the 
copyright  for  his  books  or  accepted  any  royalties  from  the  publishers,  but 
he  made  exception  in  the  case  of  the  novel  'Resurrection,'  the  proceeds  of 
which  went  to  assist  the  Doukhobours  in  migrating  from  Russia.  Peter  Veri- 
gin is  now  55  years  old.  He  is  possessed  of  a  powerful  constitution  and  a  quiet 
energy  which  knows  no  obstacles  and  no  defeat.  Yet  he  is  simple,  affable, 
and  good  natured  in  the  extreme.  He  is  constantly  oscillating  among  all  of 
the  Doukhobour  settlements  attending  to  all  matters  accumulating  during  his 
absence." 

^    ^    ^    ^    ^-  \ 

The  persecutions  of  the  Doukhobours  were  by  no  means  over  when 
they  emigrated  to  Canada.  They  came  into  conflict  with  minor  officials,  first 
in  the  matter  of  land  patents  in  Saskatchewan,  and  later  in  Alberta.  They 
claim  that  more  than  40  men  and  women  were  put  in  prison  at  Regina  for 
three  months.  They  were  beaten  and  tormented  for  refusing  to  eat  meat,  and 
given  the  most  humiliating  tasks.  They  were  forcibly  given  medicine  and 
food,  being  burned  with  scalding  soup  during  the  feeding.  They  claim  that 
seven  were  mistreated  so  that  death  followed  as  a  result.     The  causes  of  these 


95 
subjects.  The  subject  was  free  to  hteve  others  besides  the  critics  present  if 
he  wished.     The  members  of  the  Oneida  Community  said  of  it: 

"It  is  not  easy  to  overestimate  the  usefuhicss  of  criticism  in  its  relation 
to  community  Hfe.  There  is  hardly  a  phase  of  th^t  life  in  which  it  does 
not  play  an  important  |)art.  It  is  the  re^^ulator  of  industry  and  amusement — 
the  incentive  to  all  im|)rovement-  the  corrector  ol  all  excesses.  It  governs 
ar>d  guides  all.  Criticism,  in  short,  bears  nearly  the  same  relation  to  Com- 
munism that  the  system  of  judicature  bears  to  ordinary  society.  As  society 
cannot  exist  without  government,  and  esi^ccially  without  a  sysem  of  courts 
and  jx>hce,  so  Communism  requires  for  its  best  development  free  mutual 
criticism." 

The  Oneida  Community  had  another  ordinance  which  they  regarded  as 
being  of  great  importance  to  their  harmony  and  general  progress.  This  was 
the  Daily  Evening  Meetings,  an  hour  in  length,  conducted  with  little  for- 
mality. Matters  of  business,  of  community  order  and  government,  the  new» 
of  the  day.  scientific  discussion,  home  lectures,  religious  testimony  and  dis- 
course, music,  and  everything  of  common  interest  came  in  for  its  share  of 
attention. 

Tlte  community  had  no  definite  regulations  respecting  hours  of  risinc: 
and  of  labor,  leaving  such  matters  for  the  most  part  to  the  judgment  and 
inclination  of  the  individual  members.  They  had  little  trouble  from  the  shift- 
less and  th%  lazy.  Where  reproof  or  counsel  was  needed,  it  was  given  thru 
their   system   of   criticism   already   described. 

The  Oneida  Communists,  like  the  Shakers.  Harmonists,  and  other  Col- 
Icctivists,  were  long-lived.  Many  lived  to  be  over  four  score  years  and  22 
died  between  85  and  96.  They  gave  much  attention  to  hygienic  conditions, 
living  on  simple  food  and  following  after  temperance  in  all  things. 

Though  the  Community  claimed  that  its  system  was  founded  on  religion, 
and  they  had  little  faith  in  the  success  of  any  system  of  Communism  whkh 
had  not  a  religious  basis,  yet  they  were  practical  rather  than  theological  re- 
ligionists and  were  far  from  being  mere  formalists.  Thtey  were  not  afraid  that 
religion  would  suffer  from  any  truth  which  science  might  discover,  and  the 
works  of  Huxley,  Tyndall.  and  Darwin  and  Spencer  were  well  represented 
in  their  library.  They  encouraged  education,  art,  music,  amusement,  and 
everything  which  tends  to  human  culture  and  happiness. 

The  Oneida  Community  won  the  respect  of  all.  A  citi/.e:i  of  Oiieida. 
but  not  of  the  Community,  wrote  to  a  Syracuse  paper: 

"The  Oneida  Community  members  are  extremely  |X)lile.  gentlemanly  in 
dress  and  manners,  using  no  profane  or  vulgar  language,  no  cigars,  tobacco, 
or  whiskey,  are  never  sued  and  never  sue  any  one.  furnish  no  cases  for  the 
p>olice  court,  have  no  paupers  and  no  bastard  children.  Every  department 
of  their  business  is  a  model  of  neatness  and  order." 

In   1879  Mr.  Noyes  asked  the  Community  to  act  on  certain  modifications 


98 

Puritanism  reigning  so  largely  in  New  England  a  century  ago.  Some  of  its 
members  were  linked  with  the  leading  families  of  Vermont,  and  the  group  of 
over  two  hundred  people  were,  evidently,  a  well-assorted  lot.  They  brought 
with  themselves  to  this  'sortie  or  raid  from  the  kingdom  of  God'  into  the  world 
a  respectable  amount  of  wealth,  about  four  hundred  dollars  per  capita. 

"Perfectionists,  believing  in  their  own  perfectability,  even  before  they 
were  communists,  they  set  about  to  create  circumstances  conducive  to  salva- 
tion from  sin.  Mystics  of  indigenous  growth,  they  were  too  canny  to  ne- 
glect their  environment.  Presently,  by  modes  of  organization  the  new  com- 
munists conquered  the  pain  of  labor.  Their  workday  was  short,  sometimes  of 
only  six  hours.  Each  producing  member  secured  variety  by  moving  easily 
from  one  occupation  to  another.  The  commmgling  of  the  sexes  in  the  in- 
dustries of  the  group,  the  men  performing  the  heavier  tasks,  added  a  pleasant 
feature.  Co-operative  methods  and  a  very  modern  dormitory  abolished  house- 
hold drudgery.  Being  successful,  the  communism  permitted  each  person 
to  taste  a  delightful  freedom  from  care.  Therefore,  according  to  the  Hand- 
book of  the  Oneida  Community,  there  were  no  shirkers  to  reckon  with. 
Little  woiider,  then,  that,  while  conducting  propaganda  and  fighting  perse- 
cution, the  society  added  notably  to  its  wealth  so  that  it  was  called  rich  by 
its  observers.     However,  it  boasted  not  of  its  riches,  but  of  its  happy  living. 

"By  a  sexual  order  known  as  'complex  marriage'  this  idyllic  society 
attempted  to  fit  sexuality  for  a  well-groomed  appearance  in  the  Holy  City 
itself.     Thus   the   community  became   famous. 

"But  a  certain  control,  male  continence,  in  sexual  behavior  was  manda- 
tory, both  parties  must  desire  a  union,  advances  were  made  through  third 
parties,  and  every  secret  place  of  the  heart  was  penetrated  by  the  piercing 
rays  of  an  institution  known  as  'mutual  criticism.'  In  little  meetings  the  last 
hidden  motive  and  thought  of  each  member  was  tested  for  righteousness.  If 
there  was  anything  gross  in  the  sexual  attitudes  of  these  people  the  Freudian 
censor  certainly  saw  that  it  was  well-disguised.  The  ideal  was  a  refinement 
of  life   according  to  apostolic   Christianity. 

"The  exemplary  public  behavior  of  the  communists  served  as  a  par- 
tial antidote  for  their  iconoclasm.  They  were  wholesomely  industrious  and 
squarely  honest.  They  abstained  from  liquor,  tobacco,  profanity,  and  fash- 
ions in  dress.  They  despised  obscenity.  The  fact  that  the  community  almost 
entirely  escaped  venereal  disease  is  attributable  in  part  to  the  chaste  atti- 
tude towards  out&iders.  Some  new  adherents  after  joining  the  society  found 
themselves  more  willing  to  partake  of  its  privileges  than  to  do  their  part 
in  creating  these.  Such  persons  on  leaving  the  community  were  usually  given 
their  original  contribution,  or,  if  they  had  contributed  nothing,  one  hundred 
dollars.  These  payments  were  made,  however,  not  as  matters  of  right,  but 
of  liberality,  and  no  claims  for  wages  were  allowed.  As  these  conditions 
were  always  made  known  to  prospective  members,  they  looked  fair. 


1 


99 

"Because  ihe  Perfectionist  group  claimed  with  some  show  of  evidence 
o  be  an  ideal  home  of  harmony,  the  churches  retaliated  by  claiming  that  it 
^as  an  asylum  of  vice  and  the  epitome  of  arroj^ance.  Newspa|)er  men  and 
ournalists.  like  Frank  Leslie,  true  to  a  bent  not  uncommon  in  their  guilds, 
vrote  salacious  accounts  of  the  experiment. 

"An  im|x)rtant  obstacle  to  the  orthodox  clergy  in  their  assault  on  the 
community  was  the  absence  of  any  law«  to  prevent  it  doing  as  it  was  doing;  it 
vas  not  illegal,  ne\er  having  been  anticipated  by  statute-makers.  Wlien  the 
rnemiej  of  complex  marriage  were  about  at  the  point  of  getting  special 
egislation  passed  in  their  favor,  the  communists  took  counsel.  Other  com- 
nunities.  less  offensive,  had  been  stripped  by  lawyers  of  a  little  wealth  once 
accumulated.  The  Oneida  Community  would  not  permit  itself  to  be  rol)bed 
)f  what  its  children  and  aged  deserved.  Resistance  to  the  state  government 
vould  be  criminal.  ITierefore.  in  August.  1879.  the  society  formally  with- 
Irew  from  the  practice  of  comph'v  ni.i triage,  although  a  brlirf  m  iKr  piiim- 
)lc  was  reasserted. 


100 

KORESHAN    UNITY 

1889  to   Present  Time 

Cyrus  R.  Teed,  founder  of  the  Koreshan  Unity  at  Estero,  Florida,  about 
1889,  was  a  physician  who  claimed  to  be  a  prophet  under  control  of  supernal 
forces.  The  Persian  forna  of  Cyrus  is  Koresh,  and  this  is  the  name  which  he 
gave  to  the  religion,  calling  it  Koreshanity,  which  was  to  supplant  Christian- 
ity. A  part  of  his  creed  was  a  belief  in  Communism,  and  this  is  the  material 
basis  of  the  group  at  Estero,  Florida.  The  city  was  incorporated  with  110 
miles  of  territory,  which  was  to  provide  for  the  immense  number  of  conver!.s 
expected.  At  one  time  a  following  of  10,000  was  claimed,  with  200  persons 
in  the  colony.  The  city  was  laid  out  to  be  a  magnificent  world  center,  but 
has  not  grown  materially  in  numbers,  nor  have  the  expected  improvements 
been  made.  The  celibate  conditions  imposed  have  had  the  usual  deterrent 
effect.  The  community  is  conducted  in  much  the  same  way  that  many  of  the 
religious  communities  have  been  conducted,  except  that  it  has  not  had  the 
vigor  or  energy  to  produce,  much  of  the  living  having  always  come  from  the 
outside  instead  of  having  been   produced   from  within. 

Peter  Hanson,  a  member  of  the  Llano  Colony,  but  for  some  years  a 
member  of  the  Koreshan  Unity,  had  little  to  add  to  the  account  given  by 
Hinds  as  regards  the  colony,  which  reached  its  zenith  some  years  ago.  The 
account  furnished  by  Mr.  Hanson  claimed  that  there  were  200  residents, 
and  that  the  value  of  the  property  was  a  quarter  of  a  million  dollars,  tho  this 
included  some  items  not  usually  considered  as  quick  assets.  There  were  7000 
acres  of  land.  Much  attention  was  given  to  education,  and  this  includes 
musical  education.  Boys  were  taught  trades.  This  was  a  description  of  con- 
ditions in    1908.     Mr.   Hanson  adds: 

"Since  then  the  colony  has  been  on  a  decline,  some  of  the  property  has 
been  lost,  and  the  membership  has  been  reduced  to  about  70.  The  colony 
is  dormant,  like  a  seed  before  it  sprouts.  The  fact  that  it  has  held  together 
the  last  16  years  against  self-seekers,  and  against  all  kinds  of  odds  under 
which  other  organizations  would  not  have  lasted  a  week  speaks  well  for  the 
cohesive  elements  so  necessary  in  a  colony.  Koresh  declared  himself  to  be 
a  preparer  of  the  way  for  the  New  Order;  his  personal  mission  was  com- 
pleted in  1892.  ^'  ^  ^'  When  the  destructive  forces  of  capital  and  labor  have 
■destroyed  each  other,  the  New  Order  will  be  established."  Mr.  Hanson  is  still 
an  enthusiastic  believer  in  the  creed  and  in  the  other  principles  of  Koreshanity, 
though  not  now  a  resident  of  the  community. 

However,  a  letter  from  another  ex-member  must  also  be  considered.  This 
man  is  no  admirer  of  the  Unity.  In  the  absence  of  an  authentic  statement 
ty  a  member  of  the  Unity,  the  compiler  of  this  volume  has  been  conipelled 
to  rely  on  such  sources  as  he  was  able  to  reach,  and  the  letter  froui  which 


101 
tjuotalions  are  given  below  was  not   fiiendly  in   il$  expressions. 

"The  first  convert  was  a  Mr.  Dampkoliler,  who  had  ^20  acres  al  Fstcro. 
Teed  promised  Dampkohler  all  ihiiiiss  ^"  "•'  ^"  Finally  Dampkohlcr  ^ucd  Teed 
and  the  lawyers  compromised,  leaving  Teed  160  acres  and  the  balance  was 
absorbed  by  the  lawyers,  leavnig  Dampkohlcr  nothing  *'  '^'  *  There  must 
ha\e  been  thousands  of  people  who  have  passed  thru  the  colony  since  then. 
The  present  membership  is  51  voters  and  perhaps  10  children.  Fifteen  years 
ago  they  had  200.  and  I  think  that  is  the  highest  number.  They  now  hold 
about  2000  acres;  in  1908  they  had  7000.  but  lost  4000  by  foreclosure.  'ITiey 
paid  $12,000  for  worthless,  mostly  overflowed,  land.  No  industries  have 
been  conducted  with  any  semblance  of  sanity.  The  only  ones  now  paying  are 
a  shop  in  which  they  charge  all  the  traffic  will  bear,  and  the  printery  by 
which  they  issue  their  Flaming  Sword  '^  '''  '•'  Only  a  few  members  come  now. 
pKJssibly  two  or  three  a  year." 

However,  the  Koreshans  proved  themselves  heroic  in  the  matter  of 
Staying  with  theii  community  thru  hardships.  The  same  corresjx)ndenl  tells 
of  their  living  on  cornmeal  mush  and  corn  bread,  and  not  enough  of  it, 
for  months  at  a  time.  Koresh  was  absolute  ruler,  and  his  word  was  not 
questioned.  A  complaint  made  against  him  was  that  he  lived  in  luxury  at 
at  times  when  the  other  members  of  the  Unity  lived  in  extremely  moderate 
circumstances,  though  Hinds  says  that  Victoria,  his  associate.  lived  in  ex- 
treme poverty  with  the  others.  Even  the  one  who  wrote  in  bitterness  admits 
ihat  the  property  now  owned  is  worth  about  $200,000.  though  there  are  few 
improvements,  and  none  ot  any  considerable  value.  They  publish  another 
paper  also,  the  .American  Eagle,  but  it   is   not  a   propaganda   paper. 

Of  chief  interest,  however,  is  the  theory  upon  which  this  colony  is 
founded.  It  is  known  as  Cellular  Cosmogeny.  it  admits  that  the  earth  is 
round,  but  asserts  that  we  live  inside  of  it  instead  of  outside.  Their  litera- 
ture   says: 

"The  fundamental  |)remise  of  the  Copernican  system  of  astronomy  is 
the  hypothesis  that  the  surface  of  the  earth  on  which  we  live  is  convex. 
The  well-known  phenomenon  of  the  disappearance  of  a  ship's  hull  beyond  the 
horizon -of  the  surface  of  the  sea  is  one  of  the  principal  so-called  proofs 
offered  in  sup|X)rl  of  the  popular  theory;  it  is  constantly  being  urged  as  an 
objection  to  the  Koreshan  conclusion  that  the  earth  is  a  hollow  globe,  with 
its  habitable  surface  concave  instead  of  convex.  If  the  usual  theory  were 
true,  specific  tests  would  verify  it;  as  it  is  fallacious,  ocular  tcsl>  -i'.-  Mii- 
ficient   to  disprove   it   and  to  overthrow   the  entire   system. 

In  order  to  appreciate  the  value  and  force  of  such  experiments  of  ob- 
st.'vation  as  have  been  conducted  during  the  past  few  years  by  the  Ko- 
leshan  Scientific  Staff,  it  is  necessary  to  consider  the  ratio  of  the  earth's 
curvature,  and  the  claims  of  the  advocates  of  the  old  school  of  astronomy. 
We  desire  to  examine  the  subject  just  as  it  is  presented  by  the  astronomer. 


102 

and  subject  the  theory  to  the  test  of  the  facts  of  observation.  The  so-called 
proof  is  an  ocular  one,  used  hundreds  of  years  before  the  invention  of  the 
telescope;  and  it  is  but  fair,  in  a  scientific  age,  to  submit  it  to  ocular  test, 
with  the  power  of   vision   increased  by   telescope   aid. 

"If  the  surface  of  the  sea  were  convex,  the  water  line  of  the  horizon 
would  be  the  simple  apex  of  the  arc  of  the  water's  curvature.  If  the  hull  of 
a  vessel  disappeared  on  a  rotund  surface,  it  would  do  so  because  of  the  sim- 
ple fact  that  it  had  passed  to  a  point  below  the  visual  line  extending  from 
the  eye  over  the  apex  or  horizon.  In  other  words,  the  hull  would  be  ren- 
dered absolutely  invisible  by  the  intervening  hill  of  water.  We  desire  to  state 
the  question  fairly,  so  that  there  can  be  no  quibbling  concerning  the  premise 
upon  which  the  old  system  is  made  to  rest. 

"A  convex  earth  25,000  miles  in  circumference  would  have  a  curvature 
of  8  inches  to  the  mile,  or,  according  to  the  geometrical  formula,  the  square 
of  the  distance  in  miles,  multiplied  by  8  inches,  gives  the  declination  in  inches, 
from  the  tangent  line.  In  two  miles  the  curvature  downward  from  the  tan- 
gent would  be  32  inches;  3  miles,  6  feet;  4  miles,  10  feet  and  8  inches;  8 
miles,  42  feet  and  8  inches  *  *  *. 

"On  August  27,  1899  a  target  3  feet  broad  and  6  feet  in  length  was 
suspended  over  the  wall  constituting  the  base  of  the  lighthouse  on  the  ntw 
Government  pier,  Chicago;  the  bottom  of  the  target  just  touched  the  water, 
A  4|/2-foot  mounted  telescope,  with  3-inch  object  glass,  was  placed  at  an  ele- 
vation of  I  1  feet  above  the  water,  on  the  pier  at  the  old  World's  Fair  grounds, 
a  little  over  8  miles  south  of  the  lighthouse.  To  the  unaided  eye  at  1  1  feet 
elevation,  about  one  third  of  the  lighthouse  tower  appeared  to  be  below  the 
horizon;  only  the  tops  of  the  engine-houses  could  be  seen  above  the  water 
line.  The  new  Government  pier  itself  was  entirely  invisible.  Yachts  in  the 
A'icinity  of  the  lighthouse  appeared  about  half  sail  "down." 

"Now,  we  meet  the  so-called  proof  of  the  earth's  convexity  squarely  face 
to  face.  Is  it  true  or  not?  If  it  is  true,  when  we  view  the  lighthouse  thru 
the  telescope,  from  the  same  elevation  as  with  the  naked  eye,  no  part  of  the 
objects  apparently  below  the  horizon  can  be  seen;  only  as  much  of  the 
tower  as  stands  above  the  line  B  in  the  diagram  we  have  referred  to,  would 
appear  in  the  telescopic  field;  it  would  be  physically  impossible  for  it  to  be 
otherwise.  The  telescope  was  directed  to  the  lighthouse;  a  clear  focus  was 
obtainisd,  and  careful  views,  extending  over  a  period  of  three  hours,  were  wit- 
nessed by  about  fifty  persons  who  were  present  on  the  pier.  We  saw  the 
lower  to  the  line  B;  the  wall  of  masonry  at  the  base  of  the  tower,  and  the 
target  below  B  down  to  the  water's  surface.  The  action  of  the  waves  against 
the  wall  was  clearly  observed. 

"The  target  was  a  special  one,  with  horizontal  stripes  of  red  and  white. 
We  counted  the  stripes  on  the  target  to  definitely  ascertain  whether  or  not 
lYe  observed  the  whole  of  it;    there  was  not  a  square  foot  of  it  invisible! 


10^> 

Yachts  sailing  about  the  pier,  appearing  half  mast  "down"  to  the  naked  eye. 
were   visible,  hulls  and  all.  down   to  the  surface  on   which   they  sailed.  *  *  * 

"Immortality  dejiends  upon  ihc  conservation  of  the  pneumic  and  psychic 
energies  of  being,  and  their  direction  and  appropriation  thru  scientific  deter- 
minations of  the  jnind,  dependent  ujxjn  the  wisdom  of  the  Shepherd  or 
Messiah  of  this  age,  who  will  lead  the  sheep  of  the  fold. 

"We  have  no  room  for  those  who  cannot  recognize  the  Messianic  law; 
especially,  have  we  no  room  in  the  interior  orders  of  our  institution.  Our 
literature  sufficiently  sets  forth  our  religious  and  social  principles,  so  as  to 
leave  no  misapprehension  of  what  we  teach.  We  have  now  two  distinct  local 
divisions  of  our  headquarters;  one  in  tstero,  Rorida,  and  one  in  Chicago. 
Our  publishing  house  is  located  in  Chicago.  Our  Capitol  City  is  Estero.  but 
remotely  a  develo|>ed  Capitol.  People  coming  to  us  in  Estero  come  to  a 
"simon-pure"  pioneer  life,  one  of  strenuosity  and  sacrifice.  We  have  peo- 
ple, educated  and  refined,  who  have  left  the  attractions  of  the  worldly  ex- 
istence and  are  happy  in  the  life  chosen  here.  Wc  have  those  who  have  been 
through  the  se\eresl  features  of  this  pioneer  work  for  eight  or  nine  years,  and 
are  still  happy  in  their  efforts  to  plant  for  future  generations  the  habitation  of 
liberty. 

"Our  institution  is  one  of  common  interest.  We  hold  all  things  in  com- 
mon; and  so  far  as  financial  claim  is  concerned,  there  is  no  difference  be- 
tween one  who  has  placed  one  penny  in  the  common  treasury,  and  the  one 
who  has  contributed  one  hundred  thousand.  .No  |>erson  joining  our  com- 
munity can  claim  anything  upon  the  basis  of  having  contributed  a  large 
amount  of  substance  to  the  treasury  of  the  commonwealth.  We  find  the 
commonwealth  idea  a  more  practical  and  cTieerful  incentive  to  industry  than 
the  Satanic  system  of  competism  which,  in  opjxjsition  to  the  gospel  of  the 
Lord  Christ,  now  holds  universal  sway,  and  is  at  the  foundaton  of  all  the 
woe,  misery,  and  death  in  the  world.  The  commonwealth  system  obviates 
"the  love  of  money."  which  is  "the  root  of  all  evil." 

"Wc  are  in  no  sense  socialists  after  the  order  of  modern  socialism.  So- 
cialism is  individualism;  Koreshanity  is  imperialism.  Nor  do  we  hold  all 
things  in  common  upon  the  basis  of  equality,  for  equality  does  not  belong  to 
the  order  of  life  in  any  domain  of  the  universe.  Our  system  presupposes  the 
possibility  of  an  equitable  adjustment  of  education,  industry,  and  commerce, 
founded  upon  the  laws  of  order-  as  they  obtain  in  every  department  of  being. 
All  people  coming  into  the  institution  are  expected  to  abide  the  issues  of 
progress  in   the  body  to  adjust  according   to  compatibility  and   adaptation. 

"Modern  socialism  is  entirely  theoretical  and  experimental.  It  assumes 
that  because  kingdoms  and  democracies  have  failed  to  meet  the  requirements 
of  the  age,  in  such  an  adjustment  of  the  race  as  to  supply  its  wants  and 
insure  its  happiness,  the  institution  of  socialism  will  answer  the  end  in  view. 
Socialism   as  an   experiment   would  prove  a   disastrous   failure,   because   it   is 


cause   we 
woi 


104 

an  attempt  to  place  society  upon  a  basis  which  is  entirely  contrary  to  the 
laws  of  order  as  they  obtain  in  the  universe  as  a  whole.  Sociahsm  is  the 
insanity  of  democracy. 

"There  are  certain  sociological  facts  with  which  we  are  familiar,  be- 
have put  the  principles  into  operation  and  know  that  they  will 
k.  We  are  practicing  ownership  of  our  land  by  the  state — we  mean  the 
state  of  the  Koreshan  Unity — and  we  attained  this  pre-eminence  directly,  not 
through  the  roundabout  way  of  the  single  tax  principle.  We  knew  that  the 
direct  way  was  the  better  way,  and  applied  it.  Our  state  owns  its  land.  We 
have  already  practically  demonstrated  the  possibility  of  collective  ownership 
of  the  land.  We  pursue  our  system  of  commerce  on  the  line  of  the  same 
principle.  We  conduct  our  industrial  system  on  the  basis  of  collective,  not 
individual,    propriety. 

"We  have  placed  ourselves  in  contiguity  with  the  greatest  channel  of 
international  commerce,  namely  the  waterways  of  the  world,  that  we  may 
take  immediate  advantage  of  the  most  vital  avenues  of  commercial  life. 
Agriculture  is  the  function  of  the  liver;  commerce  is  the  function  of  the 
heart.  We  do  not  buy  from  or  sell  to  one  another;  therefore  there  is  no  cost 
as  pertaining  to  our  own  transactions.  We  have  annihilated  the  principles 
of  labor,  cost,  and  price,  and  have  no  use  for  the  terms  in  our  transactions 
with  one  another.  That  there  may  be  no  misunderstanding  with  such  as  de- 
sire to  entertain  the  question  of  a  trial  of  our  system,  we  will  state  that  we 
are  in  the  pioneer  stage  of  our  development;  that  we  have  not  yet  reduced 
labor  to  a  luxury,  for  our  people  are  performing  some  drudgery;  but  they 
are  doing  it  cheerfully,  in  the  expectation  that  in  the  near  future  our  prin- 
ciples will  have  attained  to  a  degree  of  fruition. 

"We  are  celibate  in  doctrine  and  life;  we  are  communistic  in  our  pos- 
session of  property;  we  are  obedient  to  all  state  and  municipal  authority:  but 
we  advocate  a  peaceable  revolution  in  the  administration  of  human  affairs, 
knowing  that  the  time  is  near  at  hand  when  the  people  will  be  reinstated  in 
their  rights;  when  the  governments  of  the  world  shall  yield  authority  to  the 
King  of  kings  and  Lord  of  lords,  who  is  the  blessed  and  only  Potentate,  and 
who  Cometh  speedily  to  reign  in  the  earth. 

"There  are  certain  steps  necessary  for  permanent  connection  with  the 
Ecclesia.  As  a  rule,  members  remain  six  months  in  the  outer  Court — the 
Investigative  degree  of  the  Society  Arch-Triumphant.  During  this  time  it  is 
expected  that  the  ordinary  vices,  if  obtaining  with  the  person  desiring  to  pro- 
gress in  all  the  degrees  of  ethical  culture,  will  have  been  overcome.  We  mean 
profanity,  the  use  of  intoxicants  and  tobacco,  and  other  vices  not  mentioned 
but  generally  understood.  When  people  come  into  our  body  with  the  claim 
that  they  have  left  all  and  followed  the  divine  teaching,  that  "all"  signifies 
all  that  the  term  implies.  To  leave  all  is  to  sacrifice  everything  pertaining 
to  the  individual  loves,  and  to  so  revolutionize  the  love  that  it  will  pertain  to 


105 
the  general  uses  lather  than  to  personal  desire  as  founded  upon  Individual 
and  selfish  loves. 

"When  a  family  comes  into  the  Koreshan  Unity,  it  comes  with  the  un- 
derstanding that  there  is  a  separation:  that  the  children  no  longer  belong  to 
the  parents,  but  to  the  institution,  and  that  the  Unity  claims  the  right  to  direct 
the  education,  industry,  and  care  of  the  children  exclusively,  without  any  re- 
gard to  what  the  parents  may  suppose  to  be  the  right  thing.  The  male  child- 
ren belong  to  the  institution  until  they  arc  twenty-one.  and  the  female  child- 
ren until  they  are  eighteen.  This  limit  is  the  one  placed  by  law,  and  all 
children  should  be  taught  that  they  belong  to  the  Unity  and  not  to  their 
parents.  This  is  a  fundamental  principle  of  transposition  from  the  sensual  na- 
ture to  the  immortal  plane  of  being. 

"Families  desiring  to  enter  our  organization  should  first  send  for  cards 
of  application  to  membership  in  the  Unity.  Their  initiation  is  first  into  the 
Society  Arch-Triumphant.  They  are  supjwsed  to  enter  upon  a  probationary 
period  of  si.\  months.  This  allows  time  for  consideration  and  acquaintance 
with  our  principles.  We  do  not  always  compel  applicants  to  remain  out  of  the 
body  until  the  expiration  of  this  probation,  for  sometimes  our  acquaintance 
with  those  who  wish  to  associate  with  us  enables  us  to  insure  them  an  earlier 
entrance  into  full  fellowship.  By  a  direct  action  of  the  Ecclesia,  under  cir- 
cumstances warranting  it.  members  can  be  admitted  at  once.  Moral  character, 
religious  proclivities,  devotion  to  humanity,  and  other  considerations,  are  re- 
garded where  direct  entrance  to  the  Ecclesia  is  a  question  of  concern. 

"if  you  enter  the  Communistic  Order,  all  you  possess  goes  into  the  treas- 
ury of  the  community — whether  it  be  labor  or  accumulated  wealth  in  pos- 
session before  you  come  to  us.  You  share  equally  in  the  wealth  of  the 
order  with  every  member.  If  by  communistic  fellowship  there  is  amassed 
a  great  accumulation  of  wealth,  you  are  equal  r>ossessor  of  that  accumula- 
tion. It  is  a  great  mistake  for  one  to  imagine  that  if  he  gives  up  wealth 
to  the  order,  the  favor  is  all  on  one  side;  that  one  makes  himself  poor,  while 
making  the  society  rich.  If  your  preference  lies  in  the  direction  of  the  mari- 
tal or  the  co-operative  order,  so  express  your  preference,  and  your  case  will 
considered  by  the  proper  authority. 


106 

CHRISTIAN    COMMUNITY    OF 
UNIVERSAL   BROTHERHOOD 

DOUKHOBOURS 
Previously  in  Russia;  In  America  1899  to  Present  Time 

The  Doukhobours  (Spirit-Wrestlers)  have  made  one  of  the  most  suc- 
cessful demonstrations  in  co-operative  colonization  and  community  life  of 
all  peoples.  Moreover,  their  colonies  are  among  the  largest  ever  established. 
They  well  deserve  study  by  all  who  are  interested  in  communities,  for  not 
only  their  technique  but  also  their  sterling  principles  give  them  a  deserved 
place  near  the  head  of  the  list.  Not  all  may  agree  with  the  rather  low  esteem 
in  which  they  hold  education,  but  few  can  quarrel  with  the  spirit  of  their 
institution.  Perhaps  their  experience  justifies  the  small  value  they  place 
on  education,  and  a  more  favorable  experience  might  cause  them  to  change 

J   their  views. 

^  From  a  small  volume  entitled  "The  Message  of  the  Doukhobours,"  com- 

piled by  Alexander  M.  Evalenko  and  used  by  the  "Christians  of  the  Univer- 
sal Brotherhood,"  as  the  Doukhobours  frequently  call  themselves,  we  take 
the   following: 

Vladimir  Tchertkoff  says  of  their  martyrdom  in  Russia: 

J  "The  Doukhobours  first  appeared  in  the  middle  of  the   18th  century  and 

^  soon  their  numbers  had  so  greatly  increased  that  the  Government  and  the 
Church,  considering  the  sect  to  be  peculiarly  obnoxious,  started  a  cruel  per- 
secution. The  foundation  of  the  Doukhobours'  teaching  consists  in  the  be- 
lief that  the  Spirit  of  God  is  present  in  the  soul  of  man,  and  directs  him  by 
Us  word  within  him.  They  understand  the  coming  of  Christ  in  the  flesh  *  *  * 
The  whole  teachmg  of  the  Doukhobours  is  penetrated  with  the  gos{>el  of  love. 
';■■  -v-  -v-  On  fixed  days  they  assemble  for  prayer  meetings  at  which  they  read 
prayers  and  sing  hymns  or  psalms  as  they  call  them,  and  greet  each  other 
fraternally  with  low  bows,  thereby  acknowledging  every  man  as  a  bearer 
of  the  Divine  Spirit,  "^f  ^  ^ 

"The  Doukhobours  found  alike  their  mutual  relations  and  their  relations 
to  other  people — and  not  only  to  people  but  to  all  living  creatures— exclu- 
sively on  love,  and  therefore  they  hold  all  people  equal.  **'  *  *  They  consider 
murder,  violence,  and  in  general  all  relations  to  living  beings  not  based  on 
love  as  opposed  to  their  conscience  and  to  the  will  of  God.  They  are  in- 
dustrious and  abstemious  in  their  lives  and  always  truthful  in  speech,  ac- 
cottnting  lying   a   great  sin." 

Their  persecutions  began  in  the  latter  part  of  the  18th  century.  Em- 
peror Alexander  said  in  1816:  "All  the  measures  of  severity  exhaused  upon 
the  Spirit-Wrestlers  during  the  thirty  years  up  to  1801  not  only  did  not  de- 
stroy this  sect,  but  more  and  more  multiplied  the  number  of  its  adherents." 


107 

Later  many  were  transported  to  Tiflis.  which  was  thought  to  \xt  an  almost 
sterile  district.  However,  they  flourished  and  became  prosperous  there.  They 
amassed  wealth,  but  one  of  their  number,  conspiring  with  officials,  betrayed 
them  and  seized  much  of  their  wealth.  Some  had  been  conscripted  into  the 
army,  but  now  the  majority  of  the  12.000  Doukhobours  took  a  firm  stand 
against  military  service,  and  to  this  they  have  remained  true  ever  since.  They 
also  burned  all  of  their  arms,  so  no  participation  in  violence  became  |)osstble. 

New  persecutions  broke  out  again  later.  Many  of  the  sect  were  killed» 
and  large  numbers  were  imprisoned,  flogged,  and  tortured.  Disease  took  many 
as  a  consequence  of  deportations.  Large  numbers  of  them  were  distributed,  a 
family  to  a  village,  in  hostile  districts. 

An  instance  of  their  extreme  non-resistance  is  related.  .A  Doukhobour 
heard  some  one  at  his  barn.  He  ran  out  and  saw  a  man  about  ready  to 
mount  a  horse  and  gallop  away.  "Stop,  stop!"  he  called,  and  his  persuasive 
tones  compelled  obedience.  The  Georgian  who  was  afjout  to  steal  the  horse 
was  told:  "I  only  wanted  to  tell  you  that  you  need  not  be  afraid,  and  that 
you  should  not  consider  this  horse  as  a  stolen  one;  if  you  want  to  lake  it, 
do  so."     The  thief  did  not  take  the  horse. 

In  1897  the  Doukhobours  got  an  opportunity  to  present  a  petition  to  the 
Empress  of  Russia  explaining  their  sufferings  and  asking  to  be  permitted  to 
settle  elsewhere  or  to  emigrate.  Friends  in  England  and  America  assisted, 
particularly  Leo  Tolstoy  and  the  Quakers  and  V.  Tchertkoff.  Money  was 
raised  so  that  eventually,  after  staying  for  some  years  on  the  island  of  Cy- 
prus, the  Doukhobours  landed  in  Canada. 

On  January  23.  1899.  2100  Doukhobours  arrived  in  Halifax,  and  four 
days  later  1974  more  arrived.  A  large  party  ot  men  went  at  once  to  cut 
timber  for  storehouses  and  dwellings  and  to  prepare  for  the  others.  Many 
went  to  work  on  the  railroads,  turning  their  wages  into  the  society. 

The  New  York  Evening  Sun  on  September  I.  1912.  published  an  account 
of  the   Doukhobours   from  which   the   following  is   taken: 

"It  is  ten  years  now  smce  the  Canadian  government  gave  the  Doukho- 
bours 320.000  acres  of  land  which  at  the  very  lowest  valuation  must  be 
worth  $30  an  acre  now.  True  to  their  co-operative  principles,  the  Douk- 
hobours cultivated  one  great  tract  at  the  center  of  the  land  allotted  to  them, 
2000  homesteads  of  160  acres  each,  equal  to  15  acres  for  each  settler.  When 
they  came  to  ask  for  their  titles,  they  did  not  ask  for  individual  patents,  but 
for  the  whole  piece.  They  surely  met  the  spirit  and  the  object  of  the  law, 
but  there  was  no  provision  made  in  the  law.  the  authorities  said,  for  the 
communal  method  of  cultivation,  combining  so  many  quarter-sections  into 
one  huge  tract  of  pro|)erty.  So  the  authorities  held  up  their  title  and  finally 
came  forward  with  a  thinly-veiled  ultimatum  to  either  become  British  subject} 
Or  else  forfeit  the  land.  The  Doukhobours  gavu  up  the  land  without  a  mo- 
ment's hesitation. 


108 

"The  Doukhobours  retained  their  freedom  and  fifteen  acres  a  home- 
stead. It  was  nothing  new  for  them  to  contend  with  official  coercion.  ^  ^'  ^ 
About  2000  of  them  remained  on  what  was  left  of  their  land  and  the  others 
went  far  off  into  British  Columbia,  where  they  purchased  10,000  acres  at  the 
junction  of  the  Columbia  and  Kootenay  rivers. 

"They  will  have  no  police,  for  there  is  no  crime  among  them  ^  ^  ^  They 
will  not  have  anything  to  do  with  officials  except  pay  their  taxes  '^  ^  ^"Says 
a  noted  Quaker:  'A  people  who  will  not  fight  or  steal  or  drink  anything 
intoxicating,  or  smoke  or  use  profane  language  or  lie,  have  a  character  which 
will  bring  forth  the  best  qualities  of  Christian  citizenship.' 

"In  connection  with  the  sawmills,  where  also  all  lumber  needed  for  the 
buildings  is  turned  out,  there  is  a  planing  mill.  Finished  lumber  is  made  there 
and  mouldings;  all  furniture,  tables,  and  chairs  used  in  the  houses  are  made 
by  their  labor.  An  enormous  pumping  plant  is  now  nearing  completion.  When 
this  plant  is  in  working  order,  the  fields  will  be  covered  by  a  network  of 
pipes.  In  connection  with  the  pumping  plant,  a  generating  station  will  be 
built  to  supply  light  and  power  to  the  whole  colony.  System  and  co-ordina* 
tion  of  effort  permeate  the  whole  existence  of  the  Doukhobour  communities; 
everything  is  done  upon  joint  consideration;  no  labor  is  wasted  in  single- 
handed  effort,  and  none  is  undertaken  unless  the  requisite  number  of  hands 
can  be  put  on  the  job  to  effect  the  maximum  saving  of  time  coupled  with 
highest  efficiency.  No  one  is  ever  left  idle,  except  upon  reaching  the  age  of 
60,  when  men  settle  down  to  enjoy  their  well-earned  rest.  In  summer  time 
all  work  is  suspended  between  hours  of  1  1  to  3  in  the  afternoon.  All  work 
stops  at  noon  on  Saturdays. 

"The  tilling  of  the  land  is  all  done  in  one  piece.  There  are  no  hedges 
nor  divisions  of  the  whole  2900  acres  as  far  as  ownership  is  concerned.  Men 
are  put  to  work  at  whatever  task  they  are  best  suited  for,  and  may  be  chang- 
ed to  another,  more  congenial  to  them,  if  it  means  greater  efficiency.  Some 
are  at  work  in  the  fields,  while  others  are  engaged  in  machine  shops,  others  in 
gardening,  etc.     Laziness  is  very  seldom  met. 

"A  writer  in  the  Victoria  Daily  Times  says:  'It  is  the  socialist  Utopia, 
the  realization  of  equality  which  is  benig  advocated  for  the  rest  of  the  world 
to-day.'  ' 

"There  are  no  cares  as  to  where  the  next  day's  meals  are  to  come  from. 
There  is  no  stinting  or  grudging  to  provide  sustenance  when  one's  strength 
has  ebbed  in  declining  years.  There  are  no  divisions  between  'mine'  and 
'thine';  no  man  is  richer  than  his  fellow;  therefore  there  are  no  jealousies  or 
envy  as  to   the  possessions  of  another. 

"Cares  as  to  money  are  totally  absent.  One  member  of  the  executive 
does  all  the  outside  buying  and  selling.  Any  money  received  by  individual 
members  from  outside  sources  is  turned  into  the  treasury.  It  would  have  no 
purchasing   value   within   the   community,   nor   is   there   any   need   for   it,    for 


109 

food  and  clothing  and  all  necessaries  of  life  arc  dolrd  out  from  thr  \allOlI^  Hr- 
partments  in  charge  of  these  matters. 

"The  government  is  in  the  hands  of  the  |>eoplc,  e(fccli\ely  and  >im|>Jy, 
altho  without  any  machinery  of  government  whatever.  Once  a  week  all  |>cr- 
sons.  both  men  aitd  women,  who  have  reached  years  of  mature  understanding, 
crowd  into  the  large  assembly  house,  which  has  a  capacity  of  2000.  and  dis- 
cuss the  affairs  of  the  community.  At  these  meetings,  held  every  Sunday 
afternoon,  the  manager  of  each  department  is  given  his  instructions  accord- 
ing to  the  ix>pular  sentiment.  No  definite  time  is  s|)ecified  at  the  ap|X)intment 
of  an  officer,  but  he  holds  office  as  long  as  he  does  his  woik  well.  This  it 
the  initiative,  referendum  and  recall  system  without  the  cumbersome  machin- 
ery  in  use  at  the  present  day. 

"All  the  houses  are  built  pretty  much  after  the  same  plan.  Like  every- 
thing built  or  used  or  worn  by  the  Doukhobours.  their  residences  are  devoid 
of  all  elaborateness  or  ornamentation  of  any  kind,  but  eminently  substantial 
and  practical  for  all  intents  and  pur|K>ses.  They  are  built  in  pairs,  and  at 
a  resjjeclful  distance  from  other  buildings  lor  sanitary  reasons  and  fire  isola- 
tion. There  is  an  abundance  of  air  and  light.  Each  dwelling  accommodates 
no  less  than  thirty  |>eople.  Married  folks  have  double  bedrooms.  All  beds 
are  taken  out  of  doors  every  morning  and  given  a  thorough  sunning  and 
airing.  .At  the  rear  of  each  pair  of  buildings  there  is  a  bath  house,  with  a  boil- 
er in  the  center,  supplying  steam  for  the  hot  room  and  hot  water  for  the 
numerous  baths  around. 

"All  the  women  of  each  household  take  turns  at  cooking  and  baking  the 
bread  for  all  the  inmates.  The  food  is  very  apjjetizing  and  well  cooked. 
Needless  to  say.  the  Doukhobours  eat  no  meat  or  eggs.  The  first  impression 
which  strikes  a  stranger  entering  a  Doukhobour  settlement  at  night  is  the  ab- 
solute stillness  of  the  place,  which  at  first  seems  almost  uncanny.  One  real- 
izes before  long  that  this  is  due  to  the  absence  of  either  dogs  or  poultry  in 
the  place.  The  Doukhobours  have  no  use  for  either,  since  chickens  cannot 
be  raised  or  sold  for  any  other  pur|X)se  than  eating,  and  dogs  would  have 
nothing  to  watch. 

"The  men  look  hale  and  sturdy  and  the  children  are  almost  without 
exception  pictures  of  blossoming  health.  *  '=■  *  All  have  an  inquiring,  in- 
quisitive look,  for  strangers  are  not  seen  every  day;  yet  disrespect  is  totally 
absent  -^  '■•  -^  The  top  floor  of  the  great  assembly  house  contains  several 
big  class  rooms. 

'  "They  have  a  large  and  well-ap|K)inted  hospital  at  Brilliant,  and  they 
have  everything  there  except  doctors,  nurses,  or  inmates.  The  building  is  in- 
habited by  a  su(>erannuated  and  very  affable  janitor.  Each  dwelling  com- 
prises two  special  emergency  rooms— one  of  them  adapted  for  women  in  con- 
finement. 

"The    Doukhobours    show    great    consideration    and    solicitude    for    their 


110 

women.  As  a  general  rule,  no  family  is  incumbered  with  more  than  two  or 
three  children.  Equality  of  sexes  has  reached  its  highest  expression  in  their 
social  life.  Women  are  recognized  as  being  competent  to  judge  upon  all  of 
the  affairs  of  their  community.  Not  only  do  they  share  in  all  administrative 
work  and  take  part  in  all  the  councils,  but  they  also  perform  all  the  religious 
rites  and  conduct  divine  services  on  the  same  footing  with  men.  Prayers 
are  always  held  in  the  open,  weather  permitting.  The  congregation  always 
stands,  not  only  bareheaded,  but  barefooted  as  well,  in  summer.  Prayer 
books  they  have  none,  neither  is  there  a  place  of  worship  in  the  direct  sense. 
They  have  no  written  laws  or  rules  and  no  written  prayers.  There  is  noth- 
ing fixed  or  moulded  in  their  worship — it  is  a  live  and  spontaneous  religion. 

"The  figure  of  Peter  Verigin,  the  leader  of  the  entire  Doukhobour  sect 
now  in  America,  is  one  of  almost  awe-inspiring  personality.  He  is  the  seventh 
leader  of  the  Doukhobour  sect,  which  has  been  in  existence  for  200  years. 
Preceding  him  was  a  woman,  Lookeria  Vassilevna.  She  found  and  marked 
Verigin  for  leadership  when  he  was  a  mere  boy.  He  belonged  to  a  very 
wealthy  family  of  the  Doukhobour  persuasion  and  he  followed  her  implicitly. 
He  was  given  a  thorough  education  and  prepared  very  painstakingly  to  as- 
sume this  important  post,  which  she  passed  on  to  him  on  her  deathbed.  No 
sooner  had  he  assumed  the  leadership  than  he  started  a  movement  of  passive 
resistance  to  the  Russian  government's  system  of  compulsory  military  serv- 
ice. He  was  soon  seized  by  the  authorities  and  exiled  to  Siberia.  He  was  kept 
in  exile  for  sixteen  years — long  after  the  last  of  the  Doukhobours  migrated 
from   Russia.     But  he  never  relinquished  leadership. 

"He  maintained  a  constant  correspondence  with  Count  Leo  Tolstoy,  who 
was  an  ardent  champion  of  the  Doukhobours'  cause.  Tolstoy  never  sold  the 
copyright  for  his  books  or  accepted  any  royalties  from  the  publishers,  but 
he  made  exception  in  the  case  of  the  novel  'Resurrection,'  the  proceeds  of 
which  went  to  assist  the  Doukhobours  in  migrating  from  Russia.  Peter  Veri- 
gin is  now  55  years  old.  He  is  possessed  of  a  powerful  constitution  and  a  quiet 
energy  which  knows  no  obstacles  and  no  defeat.  Yet  he  is  simple,  affable, 
and  good  natured  in  the  extreme.  He  is  constantly  oscillating  among  all  of 
the  Doukhobour  settlements  attending  to  all  matters  accumulating  during  his  ^ 
absence."  ,  / 

it.    :i.    ii.    :i.    ^ 

The  persecutions  of  the  Doukhobours  were  by  no  means  over  when 
they  emigrated  to  Canada.  They  came  into  conflict  with  minor  officials,  first 
in  the  matter  of  land  patents  in  Saskatchewan,  and  later  in  Alberta.  They 
claim  that  more  than  40  men  and  women  were  put  in  prison  at  Regina  for 
three  months.  They  were  beaten  and  tormented  for  refusing  to  eat  meat,  and 
given  the  most  humiliating  tasks.  They  were  forcibly  given  medicine  and 
food,  being  burned  with  scalding  soup  during  the  feeding.  They  claim  that 
seven  were  mistreated  so  that  death  followed  as  a  result.     The  causes  of  these 


133 
\o  eliminate  greed  and  selfishness,  to  educate  all,  and  to  aid  any  in  time  of 
^ge  or  misfortune. 


ARMY    OF    INDUSTRY 

1914  to  Present  Time 

Though  a  small  colony,  and  one  which  has  receded  rather  than  pro- 
•gressed,  still  the  contribution  of  the  Army  of  Industry  at  Auburn,  California, 
to  the  experimental  work  of  community  living  is  worth  considerably  more  than 
its   numerical   importance   indicates. 

The  following  excerpts  from  "Lei's  Go,"  a  publication  of  the  organiz- 
ation, put  out  in  New  "^'ork  under  date  of  May,  1924,  sum  up  most  of  these 
experiences  under  the  title  "A  Little  History."  The  space  devoted  to  thii 
rather  small  experiment  is  justified  because  its  experiences  were  in  vest- 
pocket  form,  much  the  same  as  those  of  larger  experiments  and  are  vividly 
5et  forth  by  Mr.  Geraldson : 

"Up  to  1914  we  had  a  big,  live  Socialist  Local  at  Auburn,  California, 
a  typical  local  very  much  like  many  others  ail  over  the  U.  S.  at  that  time. 
We  were  constantly  proselyting  and  constantly  'doing  politics.'  We  bought 
and  distributed  much  literature;  voted  on  the  incessant  stream  of  referen- 
dum* always  coming  along  and  dug  up  much  money  for  various  of  the 
activities  carried  on  by  the  'movement'  at  that  time. 

"Out  of  ail  this  activity  and  discussion  a  new  idea  gradually  became 
dominant  in  the  minds  of  several  of  us  and  finally  came  to  be  discussed 
more  than  any  other  one  I  3'^''-  ''  was  that:  'If  the  goal  of  all  this  effort  is  a 
co-operative  civilization.  )  'o^...ably  restricted  in  some  way  as  to  the  holding 
of  property  by  individu;  the  way  to  reach  such  civilization  must  lie  in 
starting  here  and  now  a  Suilding  it.'  *  *  *  The  upshot  of  it  all  was  that 
finally  a  number  of  th<  ost  active,  energetic  members  of  the  local  closed 
up  their  affairs  and  went  to  the  Llano  Colony,  while  others  joined  hands 
in  establishing  a  smaller  'colony'  on  a  fine  fruit  farm  in  the  Sierra  foothills 
near  Auburn  to  give  the  new  idea  a  Iryout.  ''"  ^'  *•' 

"When  we  started  out  there  were  quite  a  number  of  rank-and-file  Social- 
ists among  us.  several  members  of  the  I.  W.  W.,  and  a  number  of  persons  of 
various  other  view  points — about  forty  in  all.  We  did  not  incorporate,  but 
threw  several  families  and  several  lots  of  property  of  one  sort  or  another 
together  tentatively,  for  the  use  of  all  so  far  as  possible,  for  a  year,  agreeing 
to  carry  the  enterprise  on  as  a  unit  for  that  time  and  to  be  guided  as  to 
our  future  course  by  what  we  learned.     And  we  learned  a  lot. 


134 

"As  was  to  be  expected,  when  we  got  down  to  business,  there  turned 
out  to  be  about  as  many  different  ideas  as  to  how  we  were  to  do  things 
as  there  were  people  in  the  group.  Also,  there  was  a  great  diversity  of 
opinion  as  to  how  to  do  almost  every  item  of  the  v.'ork  we  had  in  hand  and 
as  to  who  should  do  the  various  kinds  of  work  we  had  to  do  in  carrying 
on  the  orchard  or  'farm.'  Also,  it  soon  developed  that  quite  a  large  per- 
centage had  come  with  us,  not  for  any  ideal  or  with  any  sincere  desire  to 
serve,  but  merely  to  get  an  easy  living  and  anything  else  that  they  could. 

"We  reasoned  from  the  first  that  the  easiest  people  to  reach  and  the 
people  most  in  need  of  the  relief  to  be  offered  by  co-operative  activity, 
were  those  persons  who  had  ben  crowded  off  the  Property  Band  Wagon,  who 
were  'broke';  and  so  we  made  admission  to  our  'union'  free,  depending  on 
the  labor  power  of  the  members,  after  they  were  'on  the  job'  to  keep  their 
wants  supplied  and  the  bills  paid.  Those  of  us  who  were  in  line  to  contrib- 
ute property  of  any  kind  to  the  scheme  presumably  felt  that  we  could  add 
that  little  to  cur  labor  power  in  our  desire  to  serve  the  common  good,  without 
any  special  compensation.  It  was  all  pretty  vague  at  first,  but  we  kept  the 
door  open  anyway  to  the  propertyless  person  who  sought  our  haven,  and,  of 
course,  acquired  a  fine  bunch  of  'getters'  who  wasted,  stole,  and  destroy- 
ed faster  than  the  others  could  produce,  to  the  end  that  we  went  behind 
several  hundred  dollars  a  month  for  all  of  that  first  year.  We  had  a  good 
crop  of  fru  t  which  sold  at  fair  prices,  but  we  had  borrowed  so  much  fcv 
running  expenses  that  we  came  out  at  the  end  of  the  year  poorer  than 
we  went  in. 

"Of  course,  we  had  the  typical  radicals'  ideas  as  to  democracy:  that 
each  one  should  have  a  'say'  about  everything  concerning  the  group  and  its 
activities,  and  so  on.  We  elected  a  'supervisor'  of  the  group  and  various 
heads  of  departments.  We  met  often  and  'discussed'  much,  even  as  to  how 
any  money  we  had  on  hand  should  be  disbursed.  I  recall  one  sharp  de- 
bate as  to  v.'hether  we  should  buy  clothes  for  the  children  or  whiskey  for  the 
*men.'  We  appointed  committees  and  sent  them  to  make  purchases  and  did 
everything  else  about  after  the  approved  fashion.  It  often  took  us  until  nine 
or  ten  o'clock  in  the  morning  to  argue  out  the  detail's  of  the  day's  work. 
During  the  winter  there  was  much  pruning  of  fruit  trees  to  do,  which 
is  urgent,  skilled  work.  Often  a  bonfire  was  built  and  more  talking  done 
than  pruning,  to  the  end  that  we  got  very  much  behind  though  having  three 
times  as  many  men  on  the  job  as  a  Japanese  tenant  would  have  had.  No 
elected  supervisor  of  the  pruning  could  do  more  than  coax  or  scold. 

"At  first  we  established  a  rule  that  each  man  should  have  five  dollars 
Saturday  night  to  'go  to  town  on.'  As  that  was  before  the  'dry'  regime  this 
sum  always  enabled  several  of  them  to  get  very  drunk,  made  a  very  notice- 
able hole  in  our  funds,  and,  of  course,  had  a  very  demoralizing  effect  in 
other  ways,  often  leading  to  disgraceful  brawls  that  were  witnessed  by  women 


135 

iind  children,  as  well  as  to  other  ills.  Later  we  reduced  this  'town'  money 
to  two  dollars  a  week,  but  it  was  then  used  to  buy  alcohol  and  made  about 
as  muci)  trouble  as  ever.  To  make  up  the  shortage,  fruit,  chickens,  and  hogs 
vere  several  times  taken  to  town  and  sold  to  get  money  for  liquor.  One 
man  took  a  horse  and  wagon  for  the  same  pur|)ose.  ^*  ■^*  '''  We  had  valuable 
horses,  too  large  for  sjjeed.  ridden  and  driven  beyond  all  reason;  in  some 
cases  to  their  very  definite  injury,  and  vehicles  of  all  kinds  driven  and  bat- 
tered to  the  limit. 

•••"•  y  ¥  >^g  i^j^j  'Sociologists'  who  also  managed  to  avoid  work  of  any 
kind,  but  were  always  on  hand  at  meal  time.  One  fellow  in  particular,  of 
this  type,  captured  the  entire  milk  supply  on  one  occasion  and  hid  it  away 
so  that  he  could  have  peaches  and  cream  while  the  rest  of  us,  except  the 
children,  were  not  even  having  milk.  He  was  highly  indignant  when  the 
TOilk  was  restored  to  the  children  and  denounced  the  procedure  as  'tyranny.' 
"We  always  extended  the  'glad  hand'  to  strangers  and  lent  a  sympathetic 
'ear  to  tales  of  woe.  to  the  end  that  we  were  imposed  on  in  endless  ways  by 
persons  who  came  there  out  of  curiosity  or  to  'take  a  rest.'     ^'  '^  '"^ 

"Those  of  us  who  have  survived  have  learned  more  about  human  nature 
than  we  ever  thought  existed.  We  see  humans  now  just  as  lovable  animals 
>vith  a  good  deal  of  hair  and  primal  instinct  left  and  a  very  thin  veneer  of 
""civilization,'  'idealism.'  'altruism.'  attached.  Even  those  who  have  had  'the 
best  opportunities'  turn  out  to  be  utterly  'human'  when  this  very  thin  covering 
is  F>enetrated.  And  communal  activity  soon  penetrates  the  covering.  We  can't 
pose  or  bluff  very  long,  and  'get  away  with  it'  in  the  communal  group.  So 
some  more  'very  valuable'  acquisitions  left  us  to  our  fate. 

"Here,  as  elsewhere.  Economic  Determism  determines.  Grocery  bills, 
interest,  taxes,  and  the  like,  shape  policies  and  dictate  methods.  While  these 
will  not  exist  in  the  New  Civilization,  they  will  continue  around  its  edges 
until  the  whole  world  is  reorganized — that  is,  we  shall  have  surpluses  to  sell 
and  various  things  to  buy.  Our  people  were  hearty  eaters,  wore  out  many 
shoes  and  much  clothing,  and  were  wasteful  and  expensive  otherwise.  Some 
devoted  workers  for  the  Common  Good  look  employment  on  the  outside  and 
turned  what   they  earned   into  the   common   fund,  and   still   we   went   behind. 

"When  the  end  of  the  first  year  came  around  we  had  a  lot  of  problems 
to  think  out  as  best  we  could.  Were  we  going  to  continue?  If  so,  how  were 
we  going  to  organize?  What  was  going  to  be  our  policy  on  various  ques- 
tions? ^  *  ^'  We  had  been  gradually  curbing  the  liquor  supply  by  withholding 
money,  were  again  denounced  as  tyrants  and  lost  a  family  or  two  of  wastrels, 
also  some  single  men,  but  we  had  gained  some  valuable  recruits.  As  far 
as  vse  could  reason  it  out  we  regarded  our  enterprise  as  one  composed  of 
people  who  did  not  OWN  anything  individually.  We  had  foun<l  that  when- 
ever questions  of  ownership  arose  the  harmony  was  destroyed.  '"''■  ^'  ''•■  ^\'e  who 
had  property  wanted  it  to  be  held  in  some  way  so  as  to  benefit  humanity  ia 


136 
general,  not  any  certain  group  of  persons.  ^  *  * 

"So  we  decided  to  continue,  most  of  us.  And  we  decided  to  continue 
to  offer  free  admission  to  persons  who  would  meet  certain  reasonable  re- 
-quirements,  for  we  desired,  and  it  seemed  logical,  to  offer  relief  to  persons 
who  really  needed  it,  not  to  persons  who  had  more  or  less  money  and  so, 
did  not  need  it.  Those  of  us  at  the  'hub'  decided  that,  as  those  already 
in  had  made  no  'investment,'  except  in  a  very  few  cases,  and  had  been 
admitted  free,  they  were  in  no  position  to  question  or  pass  on  the  admission 
of  others, 

"We  maintained  the  group  at  the  hub  almost  intact  and  they  agreed 
^hat  it  was  the  logical  thing  to  do  in  the  light  of  our  experience.  Later  we 
withdrew  all  consideration  of  money  matters,  of  buying,  selling,  and  so  on, 
from  the  members,  finding  that  these,  like  divided  ownership,  were  'Property 
Activity,'  and  all  led  to  divided  economic  interests  and  to  a  divided  house- 
hold.    We  were  seeking  solidarity. 

"So  a  little  group  of  us  in  California,  working  at  and  thinking  of  noth- 
ing else  for  nearly  ten  years  now,  have  been  able  to  uncover  cconcmic  truths 
of  the  greatest  importance,  just  as  definitely  as  if  our  numbers  had  been 
vastly  greater.  We  did  not  deal  with  selected  people;  with  such  a-i  could 
pay  a  given  fee,  or  persons  of  culture  and  refinement;  but  with  just  plain, 
svery-day  humans,  particularly  'losers'  in  the  property  game.  Through 
fortuitous  circumstances  we  were  early  led  to  either  banish  or  lock  up 
3\^^ERSHIP,  which  fact  opened  wide  the  door  to  economic  understanding." 
A  letter  received  by  the  compiler  of  this  volume  in  1923  from  a  resident 
jf  the  colony  at  Auburn  sheds  some  additional  light  on  the  bright  side 
>f  the  enterprise  and  indicates  the  viewpoint  of  those  who  remained: 

"We  are  just  a  little  group  of  'broke'  people  working  together  as  one 
amily,  each  one  doing  his  or  her  share  of  the  work  according  to  ability  in, 
eturn  for  food,  clothing,  shelter,  education,  recreation,  and  other  human 
ights  according  to  available  resources.  Each  member  entering  must  certify 
hat  he  or  she  is  without  property,  must  be  willing  to  give  up  the  idea  of 
;etting  rich,  and  have  no  voice  in  the  handling  of  property  affairs  until  such 
ime  as  appointed  by  the  Director. 

"During  our  experience  of  the  last  nine  years  we  have  not  missed  one 
[leal  at  the  common  table,  and  during  that  time  many  have  come  and  gone, 

thousand  or  such  matter — lawyers,  doctors,  university  students,  lumber 
acks,  teamsters,  carpenters,  and  people  from  all  walks  of  life — all  have 
lingled  with  us  as  one  big  family. 

"We  have  leased  ten  or  twelve  different  ranches  where  we  have 
aised  cattle,  hogs,  horses,  goats,  rabbits,  chickens,  hay,  vegetables,  and 
ruit.  Some  of  us  have  even  gone  into  the  slave  pens  at  times  to  hire  out 
OT  whatever  the  market  offered  in  order  to  get  cash  for  the  general  support 
f  all  and  at  the  same  time  scatter  propaganda  among  workers  on  the  job. 


137 

"Al  first  we  took  in  those  who  owned  property,  called  meelln>{s  every 
vefk-end  and  voted  upon  all  proi)crty  matters.  This  led  to  no  end  ol  diffi- 
culty, and  finally  we  abandoned  all  tactics  of  a  property  organzatiun  and 
gathered  about  us  those  who  were  without  pro|)erty  and  willing  to  serve  the 
common  interest  u|x)n  faith.  Of  course,  those  who  owned  somrlhing  felt 
lli.it  they  had  a  lot  to  lose,  so  they  took  their  |X)sses»ions  and  lett.  whih 
those  who  had  nothing  remained  to  become  loyal  members  ol  the  group. 
Our  idea  is  to  form  many  groups  with  a  leader  of  each  app>i.ited  a:>  a 
Jesuit   of   long  exjierience   and   loyal   adherence.  *   '^  ^■" 

Gerald  Geraldson  writes  of  his  enterprise  from  New  York  as  follows: 

Ernest  S.  Wooster.  Leesville.  La., 

.Although  we  feel  that  we  have  accomplished  social  research  work  of 
ihe  greatest  importance,  and  that  we  have  uncovered  economic  laws  that 
must  be  understood  and  conformed  with  before  anything  in  the  way  of  real 
social  rebuilding  can  be  accomplished  in  the  world  at  large,  still  we  do  not 
consider  that  we  are  in  a  position  to  claim  anything  very  concrete  or  tang- 
ible, to  the  mind  of  the  casual  observer,  in  the  way  of  actual  organization 
work  accomplished. 

We  started  out  in  1914.  a  very  miscellaneous  group  of  thirty  or  forty 
just  average  humans,  who  were  agreed  merely  on  the  one  point  that  we 
would  try  to  work  together,  on  as  near  a  democratic  basis  as  we  could 
get,  and  as  long  as  we  felt  so  disF>osed.  The  dominant  element  were  former 
**F)oIitical  Socialists"  who  had  vaguely  reached  the  conclusion  that  if  the  goal 
of  Socialistic  effort  is  a  co-op>erative  civilizaton,  the  way  to  reach  it  must 
he  to  start  with  such  persons  as  are  agreed  and  build  it.  We  have  had 
much  proof  of  the  soundness  of  this  view  and,  as  1  said,  have  learned  many 
things,  mostly  outlined  in  various  issued  of  our  little  paper,  "Let's  Go!"  but 
■we  ha\c  not  increased  in  numbers — have,  indeed,  lost  all  but  eight  or  ten. 
This,  we  believe,  is  because  California  is  the  easiest  place  in  the  L'.  S.  to 
get  along,  and  so  the  most  difficult  place  for  any  movement  really  looking 
to  a  change  to  make  headway. 

We  have,  however,  always  managed  to  maintain  a  free  "common  table" 
and  a  little  nucleus  who  are  now  fully  agreed  on  the  fundamentals  of  the 
problem.  We  believe  that  "fertile  soil"  for  our  "gospel"  will  be  found, 
rot  where  economic  conditions  are  easy,  but  where  they  are  hard.  There- 
fore we  arc  concentrating  our  efforts  in  this  city,  and  hope  before  long  to 
commence  work  in  Eurof>e. 

As  we  say  often  in  the  paper,  we  now  believe  that  the  New  Civilization 
vill  make  its  first  tangible  appearance  as  little  groups  of  wage  workers  i;i 
the  large  cities,  who  will  be  forced  into  co-operalion  by  rising  rents  and  other 
economic  pressure.     We  have  sent  you  some  copies  of  the  paper. 


138 

KUZBAS    (Russia) 

1922  to  Present  Time 

No  colony  ever  made  a  more  spectacular  start  than  Kuzbas,  the  Russian 
experiment  under  the  Soviet  government.  It  enlisted  William  D.  Haywood,  one 
of  the  foremost  American  radicals,  an  I.  W.  W.  of  international  standing. 
It  sent  to  Russia  hundreds  of  Americans  and  thousands  of  dollars  were  raised 
by  friends  for  the  Kuzbas  colonists.  Workers  from  many  countries  congre- 
gated to  work  out  on  a  large  scale,  and  uncler  what  seemed  remarkably  fav- 
orable conditions,  an  experiment  which  promised  to  be  successful  from  the 
first,  so  far  as  material  welfare  was  concerned.  The  Russian  government 
was  friendly  and  gave  the  colonists  valuable  concessions. 

From  the  St.  Louis  Post  Despatch,  in  an  issue  in  June,  1924,  we  take 
the  following  account. 

Imagine  yourself  on  a  warm  summer  eyenTng  on  the  highest  ridge  of  a 
bleak,  crescent-shaped  range  of  hills,  covered  with  scrubby  timber.  You  face 
the  setting  sun.  From  the  circle  of  the  horizon,  stretching  toward  you  from 
north,  west  and  south  is  a  vast  sweep  of  black  land,  overgrown  with  coarse 
brown  grass,  but  marked  here  and  there  with  patches  of  green  fields  and  the 
even  rows  of  cultivated  land.  Mist  veils  the  low  hollows.  Half  a  mile  away 
a  muddy  river,  edged  with  tall  timber,  bends  around  to  form  an  oval  plain. 
At  the  foot  of  the  hills  is  what  appears  to  be  a  large  spread  of  pine  boxes, 
just  set  about  at  various  angles  with  no  attempt  at  alignment.  These  are 
the  rough  unpainted  frame  and  log  houses  of  Kemerova. 

Off  to  the  side  are  reddish  mounds  alongside  of  black  gaps — the  coal 
and  iron  mines.  Then,  with  the  thermometer  registering  30  below,  imagine 
the  same  scene,  a  wind-swept  land  of  snow,  the  boxes  half  buried,  the  roads 
channels  of  snow  packed  four  feet  deep  and  series  of  drifts  like  high  waves 
over  the  plain,  all  glistening  with  a  blinding  brilliance  under  the  winter 
sun — and  you  have  a  bird's-eye  view  of  Kemerova  in  four  months  of  sum- 
mer and  eight  months  of  winter,  as  described  by  Mrs.  Hand. 

"The  houses,  which  are  nearly  all  alike,  are  built  by  the  Soviet  gov- 
ernment for  the  miners  and  other  workers,"  said  Mrs.  Hand.  "They  are 
two  or  three-room  structures  with  water  and  electric  lights.  The  furniture, 
too,  plain  and  of  the  same  pattern  in  all  houses,  is  unfinished  unless  one 
wants  to  wait,  in  which  case  the  government  will  paint  it.  A  few  buildings 
are  larger,  such  as  the  theater  (built  by  the  American  Relief  Commission), 
a  meeting  house,  the  co-operative  store,  the  hospital,  the  community  eating 
house,  and  a  few  homes  of  officials.  After  the  summer  thaw,  the  streets 
are  deep  with  mud,  as  in  any  new  town  where  the  streets  are  not  paved. 

"The  population  is  about  2000,  of  which  200  are  Americans,  including 
50  women.     The  remainder  is  made  up  of  Russians,  Lithuanians,  Tartars. 


159 

Germans,  and  many  other  nationalities." 

A  letter  from  Herman  Carlson,  formcily  a  member  of  the  Uano  Co- 
operative Colony,  who  went  to  Ku/bas.  sheds  some  light  on  the  affairs  of 
the  big  Ku/bas  Colony.  Carlson  is  well-known  to  the  author,  and  is  a  man 
of  quiet  and  dispassionate  observation.     He  writes  to  George  T.  Pickett: 

"As  you  say,  the  crisis  isapproaching  rapidly.  I  have  a  certain  fear 
of  the  day  when  the  capitalist  will  be  forced  to  turn  over  his  possessions  an<^ 
the  administration  to  the  workers.  With  the  experience  I  have  had  in  con- 
tact with  class-conscious  w<»ik<-iv  wlm  (.iiti<*  lirir  fionj  \mi-tu.i,  I  Ii.udly  think 
they  are  ripe  yet. 

"They  came  here  to  help  build  up  Russia.  The  fiisl  thing  some  of  therr* 
did  as  soon  as  they  had  small  holes  in  their  socks  was  to  go  on  strike  to 
get  new  socks:  when  out  of  tobacco  the  same  thing  happened.  The  only 
thing  they  remembered  from  America  was  when  they  had  |K)rk  chops,  and, 
according  to  their  stories,  they  must  have  been  eating  a  whole  lot  of  it. 
Furthermore,  as  they  remembered  it.America  must  be  a  real  Heaven  for  the  i 
toilers  and  the  capitalists  are  the  same  as  angels  put  there  by  some  divine 
{X)wer  to  guard  the  workers  that  no  harm  is  done  them.  But  I  had  dif- 
ferent experiences  in  America. 

"The  day  they  left  America  for  Russia  they  consider  their  most  un- 
happy day  and  the  most  unlucky  turn  in  their  lives.  The  Russians  are  too 
uncivilized  to  live  among  ^'  '"^  *  and  many  of  them,  after  a  few  days,  went 
back  to  America  and  assured  their  associates  that  their  radicalism  was  cured  \ 
forever.  Of  course,  there  are  many  things  in  Russia  that  we  do  not  lilte. 
Ihere  are  classes  seen,  but  they  are  left  over  from  the  Czar's  time  and  are 
not  a  product  of  the  revolution.  The  Soviet  government  is  doing  the  best 
it  can  to  iron  it  out. 

"They  have  night  schools  for  the  grown-up  illiterates. 

"I  am  no  longer  in  Kuzbas.     The  winter  time  there  is  loo  severe,  and  my    / 
health  d;d  not  permit  me  to  stay  during  the  winter  months  *  *  *"  ' 

Herman  Carlson's  description  of  the  radicals  at  Kuzbas  will  recall  to  the 
reader  the  characterization  made  by  Mr.  John  A.  Collins  of  the  Skaneateles 
Colony,  who  said:  "Our  previous  convictions  have  been  confirmed  that  not 
all  who  are  most  eager  for  reform  are  comi>etenl  to  become  successful  agents 
for  its  accomplishment — that  there  is  floating  upon  the  surface  of  society  a 
body  of  restless,  disappointed,  jealous,  indolent  spirits,  disgusted  with  our 
present  social  system,  not  because  it  enchains  the  masses  to  |X)verty,  ignor- 
ance, vice,  and  endless  servitude,  but  because  they  could  not  render  it  subser- 
vient to  their  private  ends.  Kxpeiience  convinces  us  that  this  class  stands 
ready  to  jnount  every  new  movement  that  |)romiscs  case,  alunulamr,  and 
individual  freedom  *'  ^   ^ " 

Here  again  we  have  an  cxam|)le  of  the  necessity  ol  a  motivating  force 
other  than  a  philosophy  based  on  jiute  materialism.     These  radicals  who  were 


140 

willing  to  go  to  Russia,  but  who  had  so  little  of  the  spirit  of  the  enterprise 
that  they  struck  for  socks  and  tobacco,  were  intent  only  on  their  own  affairs, 
and  to  them  the  Kuzbas  Colony  was  merely  a  fancied  opportunity  to  get  more 
for  themselves.  They  did  not  wish  to  assist  in  making  it  a  success;  they  want- 
ed others  to  do  that,  but  were  apparently  eager  to  profit  individually  in  every 
way  possible. 

It  is  significant  that  William  D.  Haywood,  organizer  and  promoter  of 
the  Kuzbas  Colony,  was  early  ousted  from  his  position.  Haywood  was  one 
of  the  most  belligerent  of  American  radicals,  and  it  was  currently  reportecJ 
that  he  slipped  into  Russia  while  out  of  prison  on  bonds,  leaving  his  bends- 
men  to  pay.  Haywood  was  an  exponent  of  sabotage  and  of  industrial  re- 
prisal, and  though  a  strong  leader  and  a  powerful  organizer  and  propagan* 
dist,  he  was  lacking  in  the  ethical  and  spiritual  insight  which  seems  so  im- 
perative to  community  success. 


LESSER    COMMUNITIES    OF    TODAY 

A     COLONY    OF  FINNS 
1921  to  Present  Time 

The  Wayne  Produce  Association  is  a  co-operative  colony  made  up  of 
Finnish  people,  located  at  McKinnon,  via  Jessup,  Georgia,  established  in 
April,  1921.  It  is  an  attempt  to  reconcile  certain  phases  of  modern  capital-^ 
ism  with  some  of  the  fundamentals  of  communism,  but  without  complete 
success,  according  to  Mr.  Isaac  Ahlborg. 

Its  form  of  organization  is  that  of  a  corporation,  with  stock  is- 
sued to  the  members  to  represent  their  financial  interests  in  the  concern, 
with  a  Board  of  Directors  and  a  General  Manager  selected  at  semiannual 
meetings.  The  entrance  fee  is  $750,  and  each  member  is  allotted  half  a.n 
ycre  of  ground  on  use-lease,  but  builds  his  own  house  upon  it.  A  peculiar 
feature  is  that  only  the  purchaser  of  the  stock  is  a  member,  others  of  his 
family  not  being  members.  This  is  an  attempt  to  reconcile  the  mequality 
of  representation  and  expense  between  single  men  and  those  with  families. 
According  to  Mr.  Ahlborg  this  is  not  entirely  successful,  for  these  is  a  strong 
tendency  to  alienate  the  non-members.  These  are  employed  when  there  is 
need  for  additional  labor;  but  there  is  no  guarantee  of  employment  for  them 
as  there  is  for  others  who  are  stock-holding  members.  Obviously  there  is 
a  burden  placed  on  the  man  or  family;  for,  while  his  income  from  the  Col- 
ony is  the  same  as  that  of  the  single  man,  his  expense  must  be  greater.     To- 


14) 
off-set  this,  many  must  go  out  and  seek  work  elsewhere,  while  others  arc  put 
to  such  individualistic  devices  as  raising  poultry  and  growing  vegetabica 
on   their  building   lots. 

Th€  wages  system  is  in  vogue,  the  daily  allowance  being  about  $2.50» 
of  which  $1  is  accummulated  credits  to  be  paid  in  cash  or  ecjuivalent  when 
the  resources  of  the  colony  jjermit,  the  remaining  $1.50  to  be  paid  in  cash 
when  current  exp>en5es  have  been  deducted.  Single  men  occupy  rooms 
in  the  lodging  house,  and  pay  rent  for  them;  they  also  pay  for  meals  at  the 
boarding  house.  Whatever  remains  is  paid  to  them  in  cash,  disbursements 
being  made  twice  monthly.  AH  are  paid  at  the  same  rate,  regardless  of  oc- 
cupation. 

About  75  members,  some  of  them  with  families,  but  not  all  of  them 
continuous  residents  of  the  colony,  make  up  the  Wayne  Produce  Association. 
The  chief  industry  is  truck  gardening — cabbage,  sweet  potatoes.  Irish  po- 
tatoes, corn,  beans,  cauliflower,  turnips,  and  beets,  with  other  vegetables  at 
times,  being  marketed  in  Tampa.  Savannah,  Jacksonville,  and  Chicago.  Two 
cars  of  p>otatoes  were  shipped  early  in   1924. 

The  membership  is  recruited  largely  from  among  Communists,  Indus- 
trial Workers  of  the  World,  and  members  of  the  Workers'  Party,  and  has 
been  restricted  to  Finnish  people  exclusively.  Their  common  agreement  is 
on  the  desirability  of  a  practical  demonstration  of  their  convictions,  and 
their  motto  indicates  this:  "Each  for  all  and  all  for  each."  There  is  no 
general  religious  belief;  probably  most  of  them  are  at  least  non-religious,  if 
not  anti-religious,  though  a  few  profess  religious  convictions.  Most  of 
them  were  coal  and  iron  mine  workers,  woodsmen,  and  industrial  workers, 
and  all  have  been  residents  of  the  United  States  for  many  years. 

A  protective  feature  of  the  membership  requirement  is  that  only  able- 
bodied  men  between  the  ages  of  18  and  45  be  accepted  for  membership. 
The  purpose  is,  of  course,  to  insure  that  all  are  able  to  be  productive 
workers. 

About  800  acres  of  land  have  been  purchased,  and  other  land  will  be 
bought  as  needed,  but  the  unexpected  raise  in  taxes  has  deterred  buying 
land  in  excess  of  present  needs.  The  land  is  cut-over  and  the  stump-puller 
is  kept  busy  clearing   for  extending  operations. 

The  school  system  is  a  combination  of  public  and  private  school,  the 
term  being  extended  by  the  colony  by  advancing  funds  when  the  public 
appropriation  has  been  used  up.  The  colony  in  1923  paid  about  40  per 
cent  of  the  salary.     The  building  was  put  up  by  the  colony. 

Applications  for  membershii)  are  passed  on  by  the  Board  of  Directors, 
but  members  are  permitted  to  come  only  when  it  is  deemed  that  the  colony  is 
able  to  profitably  employ  more  men.  There  is  no  difficulty  in  securing 
members.  Good  character  is  required,  and  an  effort  is  made  to  secure  those 
who  have  a  good  understanding  of  the  principles  of  the  organi^^ation. 


142 

Members  who  prove  unworthy  to  remain  i^ay  be  sent  out.  Some  leavfe 
for  other  reasons,  frequently  because  they  can  prosper  more  outside  the  col- 
ony. Those  wishing  to  dispose  of  their  membership  stock  may  do  so,  but 
the  purchaser  must  be  approved  by  the  Board  of  Directors  before  being  per- 
mitted to  become  a   resident   member. 

The  program  of  the  colony  is  almost  wholly  agricultural.  There  are,  ia 
addition  to  the  gardening,  a  store,  hotel,  blacksmith  shop,  dairy,  poultry 
and  sawmill.  In  the  poultry  department  800  mature  hens  and  2,000  baby 
chicks  started  the  season  of  1924,  and  the  equipment  includes  a  chicken 
house  18  X  150  feet.  The  dairy  has  40  cows,  though  not  all  are  giving 
milk.  The  colonists  have  90  pigs  of  the  Duroc-Jersey  breed  mostly,  four 
mules,  one  horse,  two  tractors,  one  truck,  and  an  automobile.  Some  butter 
is  made,  milk  is  furnished  the  colonists,  and  there  is  occasionally  some  for 
outside  sale. 

All  business  is  conducted  on  a  cash  basis,  including  the  sale  of  colony 
products.  These  are  sold  through  the  store  at  estimated  cost.  Meals  are 
priced  at  cost  at  the  boarding  house,  which  is  expected  to  accommodate 
only  single  men.  Many  employ  themselves  growing  vegetables  or  raising^ 
poultry  at  home.  No  livestock  other  than  poultry  is  permitted  by  individuals. 
A  monthly  general  assembly  is  held  at  which  colony  business  is  discussed, 
and  differences  of  opinion  many  be  aired.  Apparently  this  is  a  successful 
institution  in  the  Wayne  colony.  This  may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  all  are 
Finnish  people  and  may  be  able  to  get  alony.  together  better  than  Americans 
would.  Or  mixed  nationalities  might,  in  handling  delicate  and  personal  ques- 
tions in  this  manner.  The  assembly  meets  once  each  month — the  first  Sunday. 
The  social  life  consists  of  a  dance  each  alternate  Saturday,  with  enter- 
tainments on  the  other  Saturdays.  No  admissions  are  charged  and  outsiders 
are  invited  to  attend.  At  the  entertainments  much  stress  is  laid  on  the  neces- 
sity of  having  the  colony  spirit. 

Women  are  not  employed  generally. 

Judging  from  the  experience  of  other  colonies,  it  would  seem  that  a 
peculiar  weakness  of  the  Wayne  colony  is  the  system  of  considering  only  the 
stock-holding  member  of  the  family  as  a  member  of  the  colony.  Another 
weakness  is  the  tendency  towaid  judging  members  by  the  product  of  their  la- 
bor, rather  than  the  willingness  to  perform.  « 

That  not  all  of  the  plans  of  the  colony  are  entirely  satisfactory  is  indi- 
cated by  the  desire  of  some  of  the  members  to  study  other  colonies  to  try 
to  learn  of  methods  which  might  overcome  some  of  the  difficulties  met.  The 
spirit  of  individualism  is  to  some  extent  encouraged  by  the  plan  of  organ- 
ization of  the  Wayne  Produce  Company,  and  to  obviate  this,  some  of  the 
members  have  been  contemplating  a  fundamental  change  to  the  family  sys- 
tem, abolishing  the  wage  system  entirely  and  making  all  residents  of  the 
colony  members  of  it. 


143 

HEAVEN     EVERYWHERE 
Established  in  1923 

Albert  J.  Moore  of  Chicago,  president  and  founder  of  The  Life  Institute 
and  publisher  of  many  pamphlets,  established  a  colony  at  Heaven  City,  near 
Harvard.  IMinois  in  1^23.  held  by  the  Humanity  Trust  Kstale.  l;s  avowed 
purpose  was  to  solve  all  of  the  vsorld's  ills,  how  to  live  well,  to  be  satisfied, 
and  to  be  happy.  A  prospectus  says:  "Live  to  live,  not  just  to  make  a  liv- 
ing. Live  and  have  everything  free;  no  rent  to  pay.  no  food  to  buy.  no 
clothes  to  buy,  no  doctor  bills  to  pay.  no  dentists  to  pay,  no  nurses  to  pay, 
no  taxes  (almost),  no  insurance  to  keep  up.  no  death  to  worry  over,  no 
funeral  expenses,  no  hell  (like  most  peojile  now  have),  no  hea\en  to  go  to 
vhfn  you  die,  no  charities  to  keep  up.  no  |X)or  relations,  no  schooU  books  to 
buy.     A  place  to  live  and  to  be  happy,  free  as  the  air  you  breathe." 

Moore  prophesied  that  1923  would  be  known  as  the  year  ol  the  world's 
greatest  money  panic,  that  1924  would  be  a  year  of  universal  labor  strikes, 
bringing  horrible  devastation,  and  that  1925  would  bring  on  reactionary  re- 
volu'.ion  on  a  world-wide  scale,  to  be  foi.owed  in  1926  by  a  world  war  which 
would  wipe  out  three  fourths  of  the  world's  population.  Following  thi.s  would 
be  ihe  "new  dawn." 

Requirements  are  that  no  jewelry  be  worn  and  that  members  possess 
no  private  properly  elsewhere,  such  as  real  estate,  but  must  dispose  of  it 
before  entering  the  colony;  no  insurance  is  carried,  taxes  are  paid  by  the 
trustee:  instruction  is  free;  family  units  are  preserved;  corpses  are  cremated; 
reincarnation  is  a  part  of  the  belief  of  the  founders;  expulsion  can  be  only 
on  the  grounds  of  refusal  to  work  and  by  the  unanimous  vote  of  all;  all 
forms  of  recreation  are  encouraged;  Froebel  and  Montessori  systems  in  the 
schools. 

Ihe  basis  of  the  colony  is  religious.  No  great  material  advance  has  been 
r>ossible  in  the  short  time  since  the  colony  was  established,  and  in  answer  to  a 
letter  requesting  some  information  regarding  the  enterprises,  S.  P.  Talcolt. 
tiustee  for  the  Humanity  Trust  Estate,  writes: 

"We  are  not  in  sha|:>e  to  make  up  the  kind  of  story  desirable.  All  the 
facts  are  contained  in  the  enclosed  booklet.  Heaven  Everywhere,  from  which 
you  may  quote  as  suits  you,  except  that  we  have  only  130  acres  of  land  in 
this  one  section.  We  invite  no  one  and  give  anything  we  have  to  any  one 
desiring  what  we  have.  We  consider  the  child  first.  We  have  cows,  cars, 
horses,  goats,  and  money  sufficient  unto  our  needs  and  the  ability  to  get 
whatever  we  want  from  time  to  time." 


144 

HERRENHUTER    BRUDER    GEMEINDE 
Established  in  1500  (about) 

This  was  organized  by  the  Moravian  Brothers  and  deserves  mention 
here  because  of  its  singular  success  in  an  undertaking  which  is  usually  highly 
commercialized  and  rather  intricate,  requiring  menial  servility  rather  than 
equality.  The  Moravain  Brothers  are  not  celibates,  but  at  one  time  practiced 
the  unusual  system  of  drawing  wives  by  lot. 

The  location  is  very  healthful,  and  one  of  the  chief  sources  of  income 
is  conducting  a  health  and  summer  resort.  Adolph  Schillinger,  to  whom  we 
are  indebted  for  this  brief  account,  tells  of  havmg  been  in  their  village  a  num- 
ber of  times.  He  says  it  was  noted  for  its  cleanliness,  the  intelligence  of  the 
people,  and  their  high  character.  Their  school  was  so  ably  conducted  that 
wealthy  families  sent  their  daughters  there  for  a  year  or  so  for  the  educational 
advantages. 

Though  the  colonists  conduct  a  brewery  among  their  enterprises,  visit- 
ors are  limited  to  two  glasses  of  beer,  indicating  that  sobriety  is  not  only 
taught  but  enforced  among  the  Moravian  Brothers. 


UNITED    CO-OPERATIVE    INDUSTRIES 
Established  1923 

(Account  by  Walter  Millsap,   its   founder) 

This  is  an  organization  that  has  for  its  central  idea  the  equal  participa- 
tion in  all  benefits,  but  not  equal  participation  in  management.  That  state- 
ment should  probably  be  further  modified  to  say  that  there  is  equal  op- 
portunity to  participate  in  all  the  benefits,  but  the  actual  participation  is 
determined  by  several  factors,  the  principal  ones  of  which  are  the  amount 
of  time  spent  by  the  individual,  the  amount  of  money  or  the  value  of  tools 
and  equipment  which  he  has  contributed  by  means  of  which  his  time  and 
the  time  of  others  is  made  valuable,  and  the  ability  of  the  individual  to  meet 
average  requirements  in  the  matter  of  performance. 

This  may  sound  complicated,  but  it  is  not.  Space  does  not  permit  us 
to  give  the  details,  and  the  above  statement  can  be  accepted. 

This  plan  has  been  in  operation  for  over  a  year  now.  The  product  that 
we  have  put  out  has  brought,  in  the  aggregate,  about  $10,000.00.  This  has 
been  distributed  among  salesmen  outside  of  the  organization,  among  employ- 
es within  the  organization  as  wages,  and  among  dealers  who  have  supplied 
material. 

Considering  all  elements,  no  profits  have  as  yet  been  realized,  because 
expenses  have  been  incurred,  the  effect  of  which  can  be  realized  only  over 
a  period  of  years. 


145 

Some  of  the  activities,  taken  by  themselves,  have  paid  good  profits,  but 
instead  of  distributing  them,  they  have  Ixren  used  to  increase  the  capital,  and 
this,  of  course,  belongs  to  the  shareholders,  or  those  who  hold  shares  and' 
work  also. 

There  is  no  participation  in  profits  or  in  the  ownership  of  the  accumulat- 
ing property  except  by  those  who  are  both  share-holders  and  workers.  And 
then  this  is  in  pro|K)rtion  to  the  amount  of  work  and  the  amount  of  lime  and 
the  efficiency  of  the  work.  A  worker  must  accomplish  as  much  as  the  aver- 
age of  other  workers  on  that  job  or  he  cannot  be  employed.  He  must  hold 
shares  or  his  time  will  not  be  considered  for  profit  shares  and  he  will  receive 
only  wages.  A  share-holder  must  be  a  worker  also  to  entitle  him  to  any 
share  in  the  profits  or  ownership  in  the  accumulating  property. 

We  have  worked  out  many  of  the  details  and  functions  and  we  have 
satisfied  ourselves  that  they  are  practical.  The  spirit  of  co-operation  that  has 
been  displayed  by  all   of  our  people   is   perfectly   wonderful. 

We  have  had  little  social  life  as  yet.  We  had  one  party  and  dance  re- 
cently that  was  a  pronounced  success,  and  we  hope  to  have  more  of  them: 
but  until  our  friends  can  live  closer  together  this  will  not  he  easy. 

We  had  one  unfortunate  occurrence.  One  man  who  had  splendid  abil- 
ity in  a  certain  line  became  over-anxious  and  thought  he  could  hasten 
matters  by  abandoning  the  origmal  plan  and  getting  the  properly  and  busi- 
ness which  belongs  to  the  shareholders  into  his  own  hands.  He  used  much 
diplomacy,  but  our  Trustees  proved  that  they  can  think  straight  in  a  crisis, 
and  could  be  trusted.  This  means  much  to  all  who  are  interested  in  any 
way  in  Lnited  Co-operative  Industries  and  to  those  who  are  watching  to  see 
how  this  form  of  organization  will  work  in  the  field  of  co-operative  endeavor. 
Naturally  we  had  to  dismiss  this  man.  We  lost  no  other  people  except  the 
members  of  his  family.  We  lost  some  time  and  some  business,  but  the 
morale  of  the  whole  organization  is  stronger  than  ever,  and  we  know  from 
experience  that  our  foundations  are  sound. 

We  hoF>e  soon  to  try  the  plan  of  annexing  other  activities,  carefully,  of 
course,  and  one  at  a  time.  Eventually  we  want  to  get  a  more  beautiful  loca- 
tion, and  have  some  land.  We  hope  to  grow  until  we  become  a  self-contained 
and  5elf-supF>orting  community,  but  we  must  learn  as  we  go,  and  under  no 
circumstances  allow   ourselves   to  go   faster  than  we   learn. 

Our  prosjjccts  are  very  bright,  mdeed,  at  the  present  time.  " 


i46 


INDIVIDUALISTIC    ''COLONIES' 


The  word  "colony"  is  used  so  loosely,  and  such  different  meanings  have- 
been  attached  to  it,  that  perhaps  an  account  of  some  of  the  individualistic 
colonies  might  be  useful  to  give  some  idea  of  the  failures  that  attend  enter- 
prises which  have  little  idealism  and   nothing  of  communal   living   at  all. 

We  are  again  indebted  to  L.  S.  Witmer  for  an  account  of  another  Ras- 
kin— not  the  one  of  communistic  memory.  It  is  one  of  later  origin  and  of 
quite  different  ideas  and  ideals. 

"Along  about  the  year  1910,"  writes  Mr.  Witmer,  "some  parties  bought 
a  big  body  of  land  here  to  start  a  colony.  This  was  to  be  an  ideal  individual- 
istic colony.  In  this  colony  the  people  would  rule;  they  would  meet  in  mass 
the  first  Saturday  of  each  month  and  make  all  the  laws,  rules,  and  regula- 
tions. Whatever  they  said  went.  But  it  was  understood  beforehand  that 
this  was  not  to  be  a  communistic  or  socialistic  colony  as  a  whole. 

"  'We  are  not  among  those  who  fear  the  people,  said  the  promoters,  'so 
come  all  who  want  to  and  take  a  hand.'  This  sounded  good  to  many  people,, 
and  they  came  from  all  parts  of  the  world  "•"  ^  ^  .As  soon  as  there  were 
enough  people  on  the  ground  to  do  anything,  they  decreed  that  this  would 
be  strictly  a  white  man's  settlement  and  that  no  intoxicating  liquors  or  cigar- 
ettes should  be  manufactured  and  sold.  Also  that  there  should  be  schools, 
and  colleges.  All  of  this  was  very  good,  and  more  people  came,  and  among 
them  were  many  learned  people.  Ruskin  was  made  up  almost  wholly  at 
first  of  well-informed  and   educated  people. 

"Land  is  the  foundation  upon  which  all  things  rest  and,  of  course^ 
this  was  the  first  great  question  that  the  colony  had  to  deal  with.  'Gentle- 
men,' said  one  of  their  number,  'this  is  a  fine  country  here.  The  location  is 
exceptionally  fine.  The  land  lies  well  and  it  works  nicely.  It  is  very  easily 
drained,  and  much  of  it  can  be  irrigated  from  flowing  wells  only  200  feet 
down.  The  climate  is  fine  and  healthful,  and  crops  will  grow  the  year 
sround,  and  almost  every  grain  and  grass  and  fruit  and  vegetable  known 
to  the  whole  world  to-day  can  be  grown  here.  The  soil  is  not  rich,  it  is 
true,  but  it  can  be  made  very  productive.  ■^  ^  ^  This  means  that  this  will  be 
a  very  thickly-settled  country  some  day,  an  empire  within  itself  and  a  perfect 
paradise  of  loveliness.  Land  will  be  away  up  in  price.  The  thing  for  us 
to  do  now  is  to  get  all  we  can  of  this  land  while  the  getting  is  good  and  the- 
price  is  low.' 

"The  temptation  was  irresistible.  The  land  speculators  were  soon  in- 
the  majority  and  when  a  vote  was  taken  they  carried  the  day.  An  era  of 
land  speculation  and  grafting  then  set  in.  All  on  the  ground  bought  all  they 
could  of  the  land,  and  many  of  them  went  back  north  to  sit  down  and  wait 
and   get   rich.     They  told  others,  who  came   and  saw   and  bought   and   went 


147 
-fcway  to  sit  down  and  wail  and  gel  rich.  And  on  and  on  ihcy  came  and  saw 
and  bought,  until  the  great  body  of  the  land  passed  out  of  the  hands  of 
ihe  big  speculators,  and  the   last   state  is  worse  than   the   first. 

"If  we  want  to  do  anything  with  this  land  now.  we  have  thousands  of 
people  to  deal  with,  scattered  here  and  there  all  over  the  U.  S.  or  the  world 
' — and  that  is  a  job. 

"Ruskin  was  to  be  an  ideal  community,  a  little  paradise  or  heaven  here 
on  (aith.  ■•■  ''^  •■  F?ul  no  sooner  had  these  people  come  together  to  do  their 
\N0ik  than  that  old  scri)ent  or  devil  'get-something-for-nothmg'  appeared.  But 
the  devil  did  not  look  to  the  people  of  Ruskin  like  they  thought  he  would 
when  they  came  to  kill  him.  He  didn't  have  those  long  horns  and  that 
fojked  tail  as  he  had  always  been  pictured.  He  was  a  pretty  good-looking 
fellow  after  all.     He  looked  an  angel,  a  perfect  angel  of  light. 

"  'What  is  wrong  with  buying  20,  40,  or  80  acres  of  this  land  now  for  a 
few  dollais  and  then  selling  it  in  a  few  years  at  a  big  price?'  This  is  what 
thci^e  people  asked  themselves.  '''  *  ''•'  Ruskin  became  like  any  other  place 
where  both  good  and  evil  would  l:e  done  "^  ^'  '•'  There  sorrows  and  troubles 
■were  greatly  multiplied  until  many  of  them  could  endure  it  no  longer  and 
returned  from  whence  they  came. 

"The  day  they  voted  to  let  everybody  in  Ruskin  have  land  to  do  as 
^vas   pleased  by   the   holders,   they   killed   every   ideal." 

.\lr.  Witmer  was  in  both  Ruskin  and  Topolobamtx).  Both  failed.  One 
"\vas  communistic,  one  was  individualistic.  Ona  wanted  to  rid  the  community 
ol  profits,  the  other  made  the  profit-making  system  a  part  of  its  life.  Mr. 
Witmer  has  much  of  praise  for  Topolobampo  with  all  of  its  crudities  and 
mistakes,  for  at  least  there  was  a  high  purpose  and  genuine  sacrifices  for  a 
principle,  whereas  in  this  individualistic  Ruskin  there  was  only  a  scramble  for 
profits,  and  this  scramble  shook  loose  the  rather  insecure  ideals  which  some 
had  brought  in  with  them. 


a:     X.     x     i;     X. 


The  other  individualistic  colony  which  comes  to  us  as  a  direct  contrast 
is  the  LaGloria  Colony  of  Cuba.  We  are  indebted  to  Arthur  Greenwood  of 
La  Gloria  for  the  information.  As  a  contrast  with  the  Cosme  Colony  of 
Paraguay,  it  shows  the  difference  between  the  idealism  that  withstands 
hardships  for  a  principle  and  the  individualism  that  withstands  hardships 
but  goes  out  in   search  of  profits. 

"Ernest   S.  Wooster: 

•"•  V-  H-  \ow  to  ycur  iiujuiiy:  This  so-called  'colony'  was  started  some 
20  years  ago  as  the  La  Gloria  Land  and  Steamship  Company,  to  start  a 
grrpe-fruit  to  be  the  specialt  cs.  I  here  had  been  20()  ,000  acres  acquired 
^•rajie  fruit  to  be  the  specialties.  There  have  been  200,000  acres  acquired 
w  th  this  in  view.  The  land  sold  in  5,  10,  15.  and  20-acre  tracts,  at  first  at 
$10  an  acre:    but  at  the  height  of  the   boom   favored  locations  sold  as  high 


148 

as  $100  an  acre.  Many  folks,  led  by  glowing  accounts  of  a  life  in  the  semi- 
tropics,  raising  oranges  at  good  profits,  came  here.  We  had  at  one  time 
about  2000  colonists  and  great  activity  in  the  clearing  and  planting  of 
groves.  Those  were  pleasant  and  invigorating  days  when  all  were  roughing 
it.  Finally  the  trees  began  to  bear  beautifully  and  shipments  began.  Then 
we  discovered  that  the  slow  and  poor  transportation  and  the  sharp  practices 
of  the  commission  men  in  the  entry  ports  of  New  York  and  New  Orleans, 
etc.,  left  no  returns  for  the  fruit.  But  still  we  persisted  with  grape  fruit 
later,  and  when  we  had  begun  to  get  occasional  returns  the  U.  S.  put  a  tariff 
of  85  cents  a  box  on  all. 

"From  that  time  on  we  began  to  dwindle,  and  many  sold  out  at  a  sac- 
Xiiice  and  new-comers  ceased  to  arrive.  Later,  when  our  fruit  was  lying 
ainder  the  trees  rotting,  the  despised  Cuban  came  around  and  offered  a  few 
•dollars  a  thousand  for  the  oranges. 

"Now  there  is  a  new  movement.  The  abandoned  land  is  being  taken 
up  for  the  planting  of  sugar  cane.  There  has  also  come  a  railroad  line 
tthru  the  valley  some  four  miles  from  town,  and  large  areas  of  the  land  are 
fceing  leased  to  a  company  ^  ^  ^  for  15  years.  They  pay  a  sliding  scale 
of  profits  on  the  yield  of  cane  based  on  the  market  price  of  cane  for  the 
year.  I  turned  my  15  acres  over  to  them  last  year  and  it  has  been  planted 
one  year  ^'  ^  ^  The  returns  for  several  years  have  averaged  $40  to  $50  an 
acre.  I  am  making  arrangements  to  sell  my  goods  and  house  in  town  and 
seek  another  home. 

"Later  the  Cuban  market  developed  for  oranges  and  those  who  did  not 
abandon  their  groves,  but  kept  them  up,  now  can  get  a  fair  return  frorn  them. 
But  they  are  few  and  mostly  old  folks. 

"Now  as  to  the  community:  In  the  early  days  the  social  life  here  was 
delightful;  but  when  the  slump  came  it  brought  out  all  of  the  greed,  selfish- 
ness, and  duplicity,  and  for  years  the  place  has  been  a  gossipy,  back-biting 
and  swindling  bye-word.  We  had  two  churches — Methodist  South  Church 
-and  Episcopalian — and  even  at  our  best  they  seemed  to  be  always  bickering 
and  striving  for  the  town's  social  and  financial  lead.  For  a  long  time  now 
neither  has  had  any  pastor — too  poor  to  pay  for  one.  ^  *  ^  It  has  been 
absolutely  impossible  to  inculcate  any  co-operative  ideas  into  this  'colony.* 
Selfishness  and  suspicion  being  so  deeply  and  terribly  seated.  Nothing  ever 
held  them  together,  not  even  impending  failure.  There  are  perhaps  one  hun- 
dred 'whites'  left." 

Communal  colonization  plans  are  not  the  only  ones  which  fail.  Here 
was  a  colony  with  great  potential  wealth.  It  failed.  While  the  causes  of 
failure  were  obvious  enough,  yet  the  causes  of  many  of  the  communal  colon- 
ies^ failures  were  also  obvious  and  were  not  due  to  the  form  of  organiza- 
tion, but  to  other  circumstances,  often  of  a  material  nature  and  quite  outside 
'.the  communities. 


149 

ANALYSIS    OF    COMMIJMTY 
ENTERPRISES 

l\\c  purpose  of  this  little  volume  would  not  be  completely  served  were 
ihere  no  effort  made  to  summarize  and  analyze   the   information   contained. 

A  comparison  of  Communities  shows  that,  tho  the  conditions  were  much 
the  <ame.  taking  all  things  into  consideration,  yet  the  religious  colonics  show- 
ed much  better  results.  Possibly  this  is  due  in  no  small  measure  to  the  fact 
that  they  nearly  always  had  strong  leaders  during  the  critical  years  of  the 
formative  period,  the  time  when  the  habits  of  community  life  and  the  tradi- 
tions were  being  set.  Ihe  affairs  of  the  community  were  directed  without 
question  by  the  leaders,  who  were  strong  and  capable;  while  the  members 
de\cted  themselves  to  the  manual  labor  of  the  enterprise  without  question. 
No  time  was  lost  in  general  assembly  law-making.  Their  industiy  brought 
them  success  and  prosperity. 

While  this  system  of  childish  and  implicit  trust  i'l  leaders  might  be  ques- 
tioned, and  IS  surely  open  to  serious  doubts  as  a  general  policy,  yet  the  lead- 
ers who  embarked  on  such  precarious  enterprises  as  community-making 
werp  necessarily  honest  and  earnest  men  and  women,  and  the  affairs  of 
the  colonists  were  safe  in  their  hands.  Perhaps  theie  have  also  been  many 
attempts  of  which  we  know  nothing,  attempts  made  by  men  incapable  of 
conducting   the   affairs  and  solving  the  problems  which  confronted   them. 

Probably  the  success  of  the  religious  colonies  has  been  due  to  the  fact 
that  their  community  affairs  have  always  been  a  means  to  an  end  which  they 
considered  of  infinitely  more  importance.  They  we^e  not  living  for  the  com- 
mumly;  it  was  merely  an  economical  and  convenient  method  of  establishing 
the  religion  which  was  so  vital  to  them.  The  patriarchal  leader  stood  in  the 
same  relationship  to  them  as  did  the  patriarchs  of  old.  Their  obedience 
to  their  spiritual  leader  was  implicit,  and  he  directed  their  worldly  affairs 
in  the  same  way.  Whatever  quarrels  they  had  could  readily  be  adjusted  by 
the  leader  in  which  they  placed  such  supreme  faith.  Their  community  was 
not  a  demonstration  of  earthly  affairs;  it  was  a  place  in  which  they  lived 
wh:le  preparing  for  a  life  beyond,  and  it  wa?  of  Ir.ss  importance  to  them 
than    was   the   Heaven    for   which    they   were   preparing. 

But  in  the  secular  or  economic  colonies,  nuite  a  different  set  of  ideals 
existed.  The  attention  of  all  was  focussed  on  the  matter  of  making  a  ma- 
terial success.  It  was  a  business  enterprise  in  which  all  were  partners,  ail 
desirous  of  frequently  exercising  all  the  riohls  and  privileges  conferred  on 
them  as  members,  jealous  of  these  rights  and  privileges,  and  fearful  that  they 
mi^ht  fail  to  make  the  most  of  their  opportunities  to  use  them.  As  a  busi- 
ness enterprise  it  must  be  conducted  to  secure  results  of  a  material  nature. 
They  proclaimed  equal  rights  because  they  believed  in  them,  but  |)erhaps  their 


150 

belief  was  based  to  some  extent  on  an  inferiority  complex.  They  feared  dom- 
ination; possibly  their  lives  had  been  overshadowed  by  others  for  many 
years.  Their  desire  to  share  alike  was  the  protection  which  they,  each  of 
them,  placed  over  themselves;  but  it  grew  less  from  a  desire  to  protect  the 
rights  of  others  than  to  protect  their  own  rights.  The  fanaticism  with  which 
they  protected  their  equality  and  exercised  it,  was  their  desire  to  prevent  the 
loss  of  these  rights;  it  was  also  the  egotism  of  the  members  expressing  itself, 
perhaps.  Equality  can  be  expressed  only  thru  a  general  assembly,  for  un- 
der no  other  conditions  is  this  sort  of  equality  possible.  This  accounts  for 
the  almost  universal  appearance  of  the  general  assembly  in  secular  colonies. 
'  This  desire  for  equality  in  everything  is  a  cry  for  justice,  but  is  also  im- 
[plies  mutual  suspicion  of  motives,  and  also  an  envy  of  power.  In  the  practice 
of  the  secular  colonists,  there  has  been  so  little  of  the  ethical  and  of  the 
spiritual,  and  so  much  of  the  material,  that  much  of  the  efficiency  so  earn- 
fcstly  sought  has  been  made  impossible,  and  the  material  gains  so  desired  have 
been  lost.  They  have  defeated  the  purpose  of  their  organizations  thru  the 
'very  methods  they  have  used  to  insure  it.  They  have  deified  democracy  and 
sacrificed  everything  to  it.  Being  so  largely  materialistic  and  so  essentially 
interested  in  the  fruits  of  their  enterprise,  they  have  quarreled  constantly  over 
the  division  of  these  fruits.  Having  repudiated  God,  as  so  many  have  done, 
they  have  worshipped  material  benefits  with  a  fanaticism  that  has  blinded 
them  to  the  shortcomings  of  their  theories.  Much  of  their  philosophy  has  been 
that  of  organized  selfishness. 

The  General  Assembly  which  has  been  expected  to  preserve  the  equal- 
ity and  rights  of  members  has  become  in  many  instances  the  chief  means 
of  destro)nng  the  prosperity  of  the  group  and  consequently  the  rights  of  the 

members.  These  secular  colonies  have  been  organized  selfishness;  what  they 
have  been  unable  to  get  by  individual  effort  they  have  banded  together  to  get 
by  collective  effort  and  to  divide  equally,  for  this  is,  of  course,  the  only  di- 
vision to  which  they  would  consent.  But  the  inherent  selfishness  of  the 
scheme  has  brought  mutual  suspicion.  The  General  Assembly  has  been  a 
device  to  keep  everything  in  the  open,  but  this  has  also  brot  into  the  open 
the  suspicions  harbored  by  each,  and  the  evil-thinking  has  been  propagated 
to  corrupt  others  and  to  keep  all  of  the  members  uneasy  and  suspicious  and 

V. distrustful. 

X  The  ideals  of  the  secular  colonies  have  been  much  more  clearly  stated 
tlian  bave  those  of  the  religious  colonies,  but  they  have  been  intellectual 
concepts  rather  than  motives;  they  have  been  reasons  growing  out  of  the 
desire  to  profit  as  individuals  rather  than  to  advance  the  principles  which 
they  claim  to  espouse.  They  have  not  been  dishonest  in  this,  but  they  have 
tried  to  arrange  a  system  which  would  permit  selfishness  to  operate  as  a 
mainspring.     The  effect  and  result  has  been  quite  the  contrary. 


CONCLUSION 


151 


Fiom  the  history  of  commuiiilies  given,  and  from  the  keen  observations 
■of  those  competent  to  observe  and  to  judge  correctly,  what  arc  we  lo  con- 
-clude  as  regards  Communities? 

From  a  careful  study  of  them  we  note  that  the  most  successful  have  been 
founded  by  men  of  strong  convictions  and  powerful  personalities.  Ihey  have 
usually  dominated  until  the  colonies  were  well  established  and  the  habits 
formed.     Some  of   them  exacted  unquestioning  obedience. 

There  is  not  sufficient  evidence,  however,  to  believe  that  only  religious 
colonies  can  succeed,  for  their  success  has  depended  too  largely  on  the  efforts 
of  strong  leaders.  Under  like  conditions,  perhaps  secular  colonies  might 
have  made  a  stronger  showing. 

But  there  is  plenty  of  evidence  to  sujjport  the  assertion  that  the  colony 
which  is  purely  economic  in  its  ideals  is  not  likely  to  succeed. 

•Most  of  those  which  have  been  successful  to  the  greatest  degree  have 
been  religious.  Their  creeds  have  differed,  but  they  have  all  been  strong 
adherents  of  some  belief  which  welded  them  together,  and  their  community 
life  had  been  a  means  to  an  end.  rather  than  an  end  in  itself. 

When  we  seek  for  causes  for  failure,  we  find  that  the  secular  colonies 
have  in  most  cases  been  short-lived.  Perhaps  this  has  been  because  there 
was  not  a  dominating  personality  to  hold  them  in  check  and  to  instil  vir- 
tues and  insist  on  the  forming  of  habits  and  the  settling  of  traditions.  Per- 
haps, tho,  it  was  because  the  motive  was  one  which  disintegrates  rather  than 
integrates  power  and  strength. 

.Many  have  had  the  General  Assembly  as  a  supreme  power.  This  means 
•that  all  members  were  expected"  to  be  able  to  pass  judgment  on  important 
matters,  regardless  of  their  previous  training  or  knowledge  of  the  subject 
or  general  capability.  Passions  were  unleashed,  as  they  were  certain  to  be, 
end  in  such  gatherings  were  born  the  dissensions  which  eventually  wrecked 
them.  While  history  does  not  in  all  cases  record  this,  we  are  justified  in 
concluding  this  is  true  from  the  facts  which  are  furnished  us,  and  by  the  ex- 
periences of  societies — co-oi>erative  societies  especially — where  such  methods 
have  been  tried. 

The  General  Assembly  is  a  medley  of  opinions  and  bias  and  feeling, 
■and,  at  times,  of  other  and  worse  things,  for  hatreds  grow  and  thrive  where 
the  General  Assembly  inflames  passions.  Into  such  a  cauldron  is  thrust  im- 
portant legislation,  delicate  matters  which  demand  the  utmost  coolness  and 
calmness  and  the  most  careful  consideration.  It  is  preposterous  to  expect 
thai  a  large  group  of  untrained  people  can  give  heedful  and  unimpassioned 
thought  to  matters  which  are  likely  to  be  beyond  their  experience  and  which 
may  appeal  strongly  lo  their  prejudices.     To  entrust  the  management  of  any- 


152 

%hing  so  complicated  and  delicate  as  a  Community  into  the  hands  of  untried 
-and  hot-headed  law-makers  who  are  likely  to  be  violently  partisan  and  who 
can  scarcely  be  hoped  to  be  qualified,  seems  to  be  to  invite  failure  from  the 
very  first.  The  history  of  colonies  which  have  used  this  method  seem  to  bear 
^ut  this  deduction. 

But  it  is  not  altogether  the  General  Assembly  which  makes  failure  come 
to  the  non-religious  Communities. 

It  is  quite  as  likely,  more  likely  perhaps,  to  be  the  lack  of  a  cohesive 
<:entral  thought.  There  is  lacking  that  spirituality  which  keeps  courage  and 
faith  high  in  the  religious  groups.  Intent  on  the  intricacies  of  colony  life, 
a  selfishness  of  which  many  were  in  total  ignorance  begins  to  assert  itself, 
and  this  is  the  secret  of  much  of  the  trouble  which  overwhelms  those  who 
become  members  of  this  fascinating  form  of  Society. 

Selfishness  which  seeks  for  personal  advantages,  selfishness  which  seeks 
personal  aggrandizement,  selfishness  which  seeks  for  superior  position — these 
are  the  chief  causes,  and  the  eHmination  of  all  other  causes  of  failure  will 
not  be  sufficient  if  selfishness  is  allowed  to  remain. 

The  General  Assembly  is  the  fertile  field  in  which  Selfishness  may  op>er- 
ate,  and  to  that  extent  the  so-called  "Democracy"  of  the  General  Assembly 
is  a  dangerous  weapon  placed  in  the  hands  of  short-sighted  and  self-centered 
persons. 

There  are  many  contributing  causes  of  failure.  Lack  of  care  in  the 
•examination  of  candidates  for  membership  is  a  very  important  one.  Half- 
baked  idealists,  impractical  visionaries,  persons  seeking  an  easy  life,  those 
who  have  become  super-annuated,  those  who  are  unwilling  to  accept  the 
hard  conditions  which  may  become  necessary  during  the  pioneering  period — 
these  are  a  few  of  the  unfit  persons  who  must  be  guarded  against. 

Some  colonies  have  failed  because  of  poor  location,  but  probably  fewer 
from  this  reason  than  from  any  other  cause.  The  human  animal  is  able 
to  get  along  under  fearful  handicaps,  and  if  this  were  the  only  obstacle,  it 
is  probable  that  success  would  have  been  obtained  in  most  cases.  Most 
of  those  colonies  which  have  lasted  but  a  short  time  have  been  made  up  of 
people  brought  together  hastily,  an  ill-assorted  group  with  but  little  idea  of 
what  was  necessary  and  with  ideals  which  did  not  rise  much  above  mere 
hope  of  personal  advantage.  The  complexities  of  community  life  soon  over- 
whelmed them.  Few  persons  who  have  not  had  the  experience  of  it  can  con- 
ceive of  the  delicate  adjustments  which  must  be  made  and  the  many  perplex- 
ing problems  which  arise.  A  strong  character  can  cope  with  them  and  can 
learn  what  way  is  best;  weak  ones  are  submerged  by  the  problems  which 
beset  them  and  before  a  strong  character  arises  the  colony  has  gone  to 
pieces.  Integration  and  disintegration  form  a  constant  process  with  most 
communities,  whether  capitalistic  or  such  as  has  been  discussed  here. 

A  successful  non-religious  colony  must  be  one  which  substitutes  a  rcli- 


^ious  zeal  toward  its  principles  and  an  intelligent  pur|K>&e  of  eliminating  per- 
sonal selfishness.  Its  members  must  observe  these  things  with  as  much  /.eal  and 
enthusiasm  as  does  the  colonist  who  believes  in  a  life  hereafter  or  who  f  >llows 
a  religious  leader.  The  principles  and  ideals  must  be  transformed  into  what 
muji  be  regarded  as  a  religion  and  reverenced  with  as  much  devoutness. 
Those  who  enter  a  colony  with  other  thots  and  with  any  other  attitude  are 
«iot  likely  to  remain  unless  greatly  changed  within  the  fij-st  few  months. 

Materialists,  wedded  to  their  dogmas  with  no  less  firmness  than  are  re- 
ligious people,  are  likely  to  contend  vigorously  that  certain  intellectual  con- 
cepts only  arc  necessary  for  success  in  a  Community,  and  they  hold  to  this 
theory  with  the  tenacity  common  to  those  who  rely  on   theories. 

One  of  the  theories  most  pievalent  has  been  that  democracy,  perfect 
honesty,  and  a  scientific  attitude,  with  complete  open-mindedness,  would  be  a 
sufficent  basis  upon  which  to  establish  a  colony  which  would  succeed  be- 
cause its  members  would  not  be  tied  to  dogmas  and  would  quickly  profit  by 
mistakes  and  adapt  themselves  to  changing  conditions  and  fuller  knowledge. 

^'et  there  is  abundant  material  to  contradict  this  theory,  for  theory  it  is, 
■and  not   sup|>orled  by   facts. 

Most  of  the  secular  colonies  have  reveled  in  democracy.  Their  history 
has  been  the  stoiy  of  a  perfect  orgy  of  democracy,  with  the  whole  Com- 
munity occupied  with  every  detail  of  management,  and  nothing  permitted 
■without  full  Community  vote.  The  result  has  been  almost  uniformly  disas- 
trous. 

But  there  have  been  colonies  which  have  been  free  from  dogmas,  which 
have  not  been  t:cd  to  Marxian  theories,  and  which  have  been  made  up  of 
people  with  unusual  scientific  attainments  and  presumably  with  the  scien- 
tific and  open-minded  attitude  which  is  so  favored.  Robert  Owen's  New 
Harmony  had  a  brilliant  gathering  of  such  persons,  it  was  not  bound  by 
Marxian  philosophy,  for  it  preceded  Marx  by  a  score  of  years.  It  was  not 
dominated  by  a  |)owerfu|  personality,  for  Owen  was  not  able  to  be  present. 
It  was  a  perfect  example  of  the  conditions  which  some  contend  so  certainly 
dre  alone  necessary  for  success,  it  lasted  only  two  years,  yet  it  was  richly 
endowed  and  had  everything  necessary  for  material  success.  There  was 
lacking  that  ethical  or  spiritual  quality  which  is  considered  neces&ary  by 
those  who  have  given  concentrated  thot  and  whose  op|X)rtunities  for  obser- 
vation have  b>een  exceptionally  good. 

The  Harmony  Community  of  the  Rappites  is  another  illustration  which 
is  worth  considering.  Unfortunately,  the  chapter  devoted  in  this  book  to 
Harmony  does  not  do  it  full  justice.  After  it  was  already  in  print,  the  writer 
{^ot  into  communication  with  Mr.  John  Duss.  final  administrator  of  the  affairs 
of  the  Rappites.  and  secured  valuable  new  material.  Mr.  Duss's  account 
of  Community  life  among  the  Rappites  shows  that  they  were  not  tied  to  a 
religion,  but  that  most  of  them  were  religious.     Some,  however,  were  opposed 


T54 

to  religion.  The  elder  Rapp  was  their  leader,  but  Frederick  Rapp  was  look- 
ed upon  with  almost  equal  favor.  Yet,  after  the  death  of  both  of  these 
the  Coimiunity  continued,  finally  rounding  out  a  century.  The  cohesive 
factor  was  a  high  degree  of  ethical  conduct  and  a  love  for  humanity.  It  did 
not  depeid  on  intellectual  concepts,  but  held  toward  all  a  genuine  love  and 
helpfulness.  Are  we  not  justified  in  believing  that  it  was  this  unselfishness 
that  hai  much  to  do  with  the  longevity  of  the  community?  It  was  not  found- 
ed absolutely  on  religion,  tho  generally  so  classified,  and  it  had  most  of  the 
ideals  and  all  of  the  material  conditions  which  were  present  in  the  Owenite 
Community  at  New  Harmony.  It  gave  much  attention  to  educating  its  peo- 
ple a! id  it  had  many  illustrious  members.  The  essential  difference  was  un- 
■quest}onably  the  spiritual  quality. 

Let  us  consider  one  more  instance.  The  Llano  Colony  started  with  cer- 
tain intellectual  concepts.  It  believed  in  Democracy  as  exemplified  in  the 
Ger.eral  Assembly.  The  members,  while  perhaps  biased  and  opinionated,  and 
possessed  of  dogmatic  beliefs,  were,  nevertheless  proved  to  be  quite  flexible. 
I  hey   changed   their   ideas   to   the   extent   of   making   several   changes   in   the 

form  of  government,  trying  several  forms.  This  may  not  have  been  done 
in  a  systematic  manner,  but  it  was  nevertheless  done.  They  blundered,  but 
they  moved.  They  have  been  experimentalists,  not  scientific,  perhaps,  but 
willing  to  try  new  ways.  They  have  changed  their  methods,  though  they 
have  remained  true  to  their  original  principles  and  ideals. 

The  history  of  the  Llano  Colony  is  the  h:Jtory  of  a  change  of  attitude, 
one  from  pure  materialism  toward  one  of  unselfish  devotion  to  the  good  of  the 
Community  and  the  benefit  of  humanity.  They  have  gradually  introduced  more 
and  more  of  the  unselfishness  which  becomes  the  cohesive  quality  necessary 
to  success.  It  is  true,  perhaps,  that  this  is  still  far  Irom  ideal;  yet  the  essen- 
tial thing  is  that  they  are  abandoning  the  cold,  hard  intellectual  concepts 
which  first  brought  them  together,  and  are  recognizing  in  increasing  degree 
the  necessity  of  a  spiritual  attitude  in  addition  to  the  honesty,  scientific  atti- 
tude, and  open-mindedness  which  so  many  seem   to  think  all-sufficient. 

The  history  of  Communities  shows  that  the  essence  of  success  lies  in  the 
motivating  force  which  dominates  those  who  go  into  Communities  and  which 
will  urge  them  in  the  shaping  of  their  affairs.  The  directing  force  can  take  it 
along  the  road  toward  success,  or  force  it  along  the  route  to  failure  and 
disintegration;  but  this  will  be  due  to  the  motives  within  the  colonists. 

Nothing  can  be  clearer  to  those  who  study  carefully  and  weigh  facts  than 
that  there  is  an  essential  motive  which  does  not  arise  in  the  intellect,  but  is 
more  difficult  to  analyze  and  classify.  Those  who  adhere  blindly  to  theories 
which  have  been  repeatedly  tried  and  proven  unsuccessful,  and  who  turn  their 
backs  on  the  facts  which  have  been  so  vividly  brot  out  by  the  experience 
of   others,   do   not   take   the   scientific   attitude   of   open-m'.ndedness   which   is 


1 55 
one  of  the  qualificalions  to  success  in  Community  life,  but  start  from  the  first 
on  the  dismal  trail  which  others  have   followed  to  failure. 

Embracing  an  ideal  of  unselfishness  and  love  for  humanity  instead  of 
mere  special  and  individual  benefits  docs  not  imply,  as  these  adherents  of 
the  intellectual  concept  idea  stem  to  think,  that  good  business  methods  cannot 
be  followed.  The  Rappiles  did  an  extensive  business  over  wide  areas  of 
territory  and  were  highly  successful.  Nor  does  it  mean  that  they  es|KHJie  a 
mushy  philosophy  of  sentimental  prayer-making.  They,  in  fact,  rejTiai[> 
creedless   but    flexible,   business-like,   energetic,   and   in    the    main    harmonious. 

There  must  be  a  happy  medium,  a  blending  of  the  plans  and  purposes  of 
the  economic  with  the  faith  and  enthusiasm  and  zeal  and  dogged  persist- 
ence of  the  religious  colonies.  I  here  must  be  freedom  from  dogmatic  creeds^ 
whether  religion  or  otherwise,  but  there  must  also  be  the  energy  and  fervent 
desire  which  has  been  so  characteristic  of  the  religious  colonies.  For  the 
latter  have  overcome  greater  obstacles  and  have  made  their  success  in  most 
cases  thru  greater  privations  than  discouraged  the  economic  groups. 

With  the  driving  force  and  cohesiveness  of  a  religious  enthusiasm  and 
the  ciear-mindediiess  and  individual  initiative  of  the  economic  plans  co-ordin- 
ated, there  is  strong  reason  to  believe  that  a  Community  can  not  only  exist, 
but  can  grow  and  thrive  and  prosper,  expanding  with  the  years  to  become 
a   vital    force  in   modern   civilization. 


156 

CO-OPERATION   AND   HUMAN    NATURE 

'  J-     ^     By  G.  J.  Holyoake 
(From  the  Co-operative  Classic,  "History  of  the  Rochdale  Pioneers") 

The  moral  miracle  performed  by  our  co-operators  at  Rochdale  Is  that 
hey  had  the  good  sense  to  differ  without  disagreeing;  to  dissent  with  eacb 
)ther  without  separating;   to  hate  at  times,  and  yet  always  to  hold  together. 

In  most  working-class  societies,  and,  indeed,  in  most  public  societies  of  alf 
:lasses,  a  number  of  curious  persons  are  found  who  appear  born  under  a 
lisagreeable  star.  They  breathe  hostility,  distrust,  and  dissension.  Their 
ones  are  always  harsh.  It  is  no  fault  of  theirs;  they  do  not  mean  it;  they 
:annot  help  it.  Their  organs  of  speech  are  cracked  and  no  melodious  sound 
:an  come  out;  their  native  note  is  a  moral  squeak.  They  are  never  cordial 
md  never  satisfied.  The  restless  convolutions  of  their  skin  denote  a  "differ- 
;nce  of  opinion";  their  very  lips  hang  in  the  form  of  a  "carp";  the  muscles 
)f  their  faces  are  "drawn  up"  in  the  shape  of  an  amendment,  and  their 
vrinkled  brows  frown  with  an  "entirely  new  principle  of  action."  They  are 
I  species  of  social  porcupine  whose  quills  eternally  stick  out.  Their  vision  is 
nverted;  they  see  everything  upside  down.  They  place  every  i^ubiect  ins 
(vater  to  inspect  it,  where  the  straightest  rod  appears  hopelessly  bent.  They 
enow  that  every  word  has  two  meanings,  and  they  always  take  the  one  you 
Jo  not  intend.  They  know  that  no  statement  can  include  everything,  and 
hey  always  fix  upon  whatever  you  omit  and  ignore  whatever  you  assert. 

These  people  join  a  society  ostensibly  to  co-operate  with  it,  but  really^ 
0  do  nothing  but  criticise  it,  without  attempting  patiently  to  improve  that 
if  which  they  complain.  Instead  of  seeking  strength  to  use  it  in  mutuaV 
defense,  they  look  for  weakness  to  expose  it  to  the  common  enemy.  They 
Tiake  every  associate  sensible  of  perpetual  dissatisfaction  until  niembership- 
rvith  them  becomes  a  penal  infliction  and  you  feel  that  you  are  more  sure 
af  peace  and  respect  among  your  opponents  than  among  your  friends.  They 
predict  to  everybody  that  the  thing  must  fall — until  they  make  it  impossible 
that  it  can  succeed — and  then  take  credit  for  their  treacherous  foresight  and 
isk  your  gratitude  and  respect  for  the  very  thing  that  hampered  you.  ' 

Whoever  joins  a  co-operative  society  ought  to  be  made  aware  of  this 
:urious  species  of  colleague  whom  we  have  described.  You  can  get  on  with 
them  very  well  if  they  do  not  take  you  by  surprise.  Indeed,  they  are  useful 
n  their  way;  they  are  the  dead  weights  with  which  the  social  architect  tries 
the  strength  of  his  new  building.  We  mention  them  because  they  existed  in 
Rochdale,  and  that  fact  serves  to  show  that  the  pioneer  co-operators  en* 
joyed  no  favor  from  nature  or  accident.  They  tried  like  other  men,  and  had 
to  combat  the  ordinary  human  difficulties. 


lOUNDi 


t\v 


